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What is a Mixed Signal Oscilloscope?

e14cstanton — Thu, 17 Apr 2025 09:49:33 GMT

Current Revision posted to Documents by e14cstanton on 4/17/2025 9:49:33 AM

A comparison of different types of oscilloscopes and an introduction to the mixed signal oscilloscope.

What are the Different Types of Oscilloscopes?

Oscilloscopes are diagnostic instruments that can be used to visualize and analyze the characteristics of electrical signals in real-time. They can be used to validate, test, debug, and verify circuit designs quickly and accurately while designing, manufacturing, or repairing electronic equipment. Analog and digital oscilloscopes are available, as well as mixed-signal oscilloscopes (MSO), which can display and compare both analog and digital signals. In this article, we will give an overview of the various features and advantages in using Tektronix mixed-signal oscilloscopes.

Oscilloscope Types and Architectures

Oscilloscopes can be categorized into analog and digital types. An analog oscilloscope captures and displays the voltage waveform in its original form. The screen of an analog oscilloscope displays signals using a cathode ray tube (CRT), producing a visible representation of an electrical signal that allows the user to observe the shape and behavior of the signal over time. In contrast, a digital oscilloscope uses a screen with a more modern technology, such as LCD. Digital oscilloscopes are preferred as they offer greater accuracy and precision, as well as being capable of storing and analyzing data.

A digital oscilloscope uses an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter to capture and store measured information digitally. The waveform is acquired as a series of samples, which are stored until a sufficient number are accumulated. The digital oscilloscope then reassembles the waveform for display on the screen. Additionally, digital oscilloscopes often have more advanced features, including the ability to trigger on specific events and to display multiple signals simultaneously. Many digital oscilloscopes also provide mean and RMS calculations, duty cycle, and other math operations. Digital oscilloscopes generally fall into five categories as explained below:

Digital storage oscilloscope (DSO): DSO’s are suitable for low repetition rate or single-shot, high-speed, multichannel design applications.
Digital phosphor oscilloscope (DPO): DPOs display Z-axis (intensity) measurements in real-time and are ideal troubleshooting tools for advanced analysis, communication mask testing, digital debugging of intermittent signals, repetitive digital design, and timing applications.
Mixed signal oscilloscope (MSO): MSO’s help to quickly debug digital circuits using powerful digital triggering, high-resolution acquisition capability, and analysis tools.
Mixed domain oscilloscope (MDO): MDO’s have the same capabilities as MSO’s and include an integrated spectrum analyzer that adds RF debugging to the analog and digital capabilities.
Digital sampling oscilloscope: For very high-speed signal analysis, sampling oscilloscopes support jitter and noise analysis with ultra-low jitter acquisitions. They can achieve bandwidth and high-speed timing 10 times higher than other oscilloscopes for repetitive signals.

What is the Architecture of an Oscilloscope?

An oscilloscope can have either a serial-processing or parallel-processing architecture. Figure 1 illustrates how a DSO uses a serial-processing architecture to capture and display a signal. DSO’s process captured waveforms serially. The waveform capture rate is dependent on the speed of the oscilloscope’s microprocessor. DSO’s offer high performance in a single-shot, multichannel instrument.

Figure 1: Serial-processing architecture

DPOs use a parallel-processing architecture to process data. The DPO architecture dedicates unique ASIC hardware to acquiring waveform images, resulting in a higher signal visualization level. Figure 2 illustrates how a DPO’s microprocessor works in parallel with the integrated acquisition system for display management, instrument control, and measurement automation so that the oscilloscope’s acquisition speed remains unaffected. The direct rasterization of the waveform data removes the data-processing bottleneck.

Figure 2: Parallel-processing architecture

What is a Mixed Signal Oscilloscope?

A mixed signal oscilloscope (MSO) is a type of DSO that is capable of analyzing and troubleshooting analog and digital signals in a single instrument. An MSO has powerful digital triggering and high-resolution acquisition capability, as well as analysis tools that can help quickly debug digital circuits. These features allow you to view and analyze signals from multiple sources, providing a more comprehensive view of a system or circuit. Some of the key elements of MSO’s include advanced triggering capabilities for capturing and analyzing complex signal behavior, as well as protocol decoding, which allows the oscilloscope to automatically interpret and display standard serial protocols, such as I2C, SPI, and UART. High-resolution displays provide detailed and accurate views of the signals. Calculations can be performed on measured signals using built-in advanced math and analysis functions.

Oscilloscopes

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Tektronix 2 Series MSO

The 2 Series MSO is a full-featured, real-time touchscreen oscilloscope in a compact, portable form factor that feels like a tablet. The 2 Series MSO supports bandwidths up to 500 MHz with a maximum 2.5 GS/s sample rate. It has four analog and 16 digital channels, which can be synchronized and combined to display every characteristic of a signal.

Figure 3 illustrates the front and side of the 2 Series MSO. An optional detachable battery pack makes use on the bench or in the field more flexible. The 2 Series MSO features a 10.1-inch color touchscreen with an intuitive user interface that gives quick access to its functions. The touchscreen allows users to drag waveforms to pan and adjust position, as well as zooming in or out via pinch gestures. The 2 Series MSO can be connected to a network or directly to a PC or test equipment via onboard Ethernet port. It also includes USB 2.0 ports as well as an integrated digital voltmeter.

Figure 3: Tektronix 2 Series MSO

The 2 Series MSO includes an arbitrary function generator that supports a variety of preset waveform types, including sine, square, pulse, ramp, and triangle, as well as Gaussian, Lorentz, random noise, haversine, and cardiac. It also offers a complete set of advanced triggers, including edge, runt, logic, pulse width, timeout, rise/fall time, setup and hold, and parallel bus.

Table 1 mentions other essential specifications of the 2 Series MSO.

Features	MSO22	MSO24
Analog channels	2	4
Analog channel bandwidth	70 MHz, 100 MHz, 200 MHz, 350 MHz, and 500 MHz
Sample rate	1.25 GS/s All channel, 2.5 GS/s half channels Interleaved
Record length	10 M
Digital channels	16
AFG outputs	1 (multiplexed with Aux Out)
Function Generator	50 MHz, single channel with 128k point arbitrary waveform
Protocol Analysis	I2C, SPI, UART, CAN, CAN-FD, LIN, SENT

Table 1: Features of 2 series MSO

Figure 4 shows how the user interface can be customized to simultaneously view analog channels, math FFT plot, decoded serial bus waveforms, cursor readouts, results table, measurement results, and the setup information for each input. The various views can be relocated and resized as needed.

Figure 4: picture showing analog channels waveform view, decoded serial bus waveform

Any analog input can be a source for the voltmeter, using the same probes used for the oscilloscope. The frequency counter provides a precise readout of the frequency of the selected input channel. TekDrive and TekScope are natively integrated into the oscilloscope, allowing users to store, share, test, and analyze waveforms from any location.

Other MSO's by Tektronix

Tektronix offers several mixed-signal oscilloscopes with features such as multiple channels, color displays, and advanced triggering and analysis capabilities. The following table lists the MSO’s along with their differentiating features.

Series Model	Bandwidth	Record Length	Channels	Color Display
6 Series B MSO Buy now	1 GHz - 10 GHz	62.5 M - 1 G	4 analog	15.6 in.
			8-32 digital (optional)	(395 mm)
5 Series B MSO Buy now	350 MHz - 2 GHz	62.5 M - 500 M	4–8 analog	15.6 in.
			8-64 digital (optional)	(395 mm)
4 Series MSO Buy now	200 MHz - 1.5 GHz	31.25 M - 62.5 M	4, 6 analog	13.3 in
			up to 48 digital (optional)	(338 mm)
3 Series MDO Buy now	100 MHz - 1 GHz	10 M	2, 4 analog	11.6 inches
			16 digital (optional)	(295 mm)
			1 RF (optional)
2 Series MSO Buy now	100 MHz - 200 MHz	1 M	2, 4 analog	10.1 in.
			16 digital	(180 mm)
MDO3000 Series Buy now	100 MHz - 1 GHz	10 M	2, 4 analog	9 in.
			16 digital (optional)	(229 mm)
			1 RF

Table 2: Tektronix MSO/MDO

Summing up: Mixed-Signal Oscilloscopes

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Mixed-signal oscilloscopes are capable of displaying and comparing both analog and digital signals. They feature all the benefits of a modern digital oscilloscope, including high-resolution display, touchscreen, and advanced triggers. The Tektronix 2 Series is a portable MSO that is equally at home on a bench as in the field. The 2 Series MSO features an intuitive interface and versatile connectivity options, as well as advanced debugging capabilities.

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Oscilloscopes are very advanced these days. Do you remember the first oscilloscope you used and what you did with it?

Please tell us in the Comments section below.

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The Difference Between a System on a Chip (SoC), a System in a Package (SiP), and a Computer on a Module (CoM)

e14cstanton — Thu, 17 Apr 2025 09:41:49 GMT

Current Revision posted to Documents by e14cstanton on 4/17/2025 9:41:49 AM

Do You Know The Difference Between a SoC, SiP and CoM?

IC technology has progressed over the years to allow manufacturers to incorporate several subsystems on a single die that already contains a single or multi-core processor. Computer and communications companies have driven this trend for the last several decades to produce all-in-one and embedded packages that are, or are close to, an entire computer or electronic system on a chip. SoCs, SiPs, and CoMs can be found in everything from smartphones to automated systems, and their applications are endless. While they may look the same and offer similar functionality at their roots, SoCs, SiPs, and CoMs are different in several aspects. The purpose of this article is to explain those differences and provide an overview of their key technologies.

SoC: System-on-a-Chip

A System-on-a-Chip (SoC) integrates all the necessary components needed for a system on a single chip or integrated circuit (IC). This includes one or more processor cores (single, dual, quad, octo, etc.), a GPU, memory (RAM/ROM) or memory subsystems (memory controllers), onboard storage (Flash, eMMC), and I/O subsystems (PCIe, SATA, USB, SPI, I2C, UART). Communications technologies can also be incorporated into the chip, such as Ethernet, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and RF.

Think of them in contrast to a typical PC motherboard, where components (CPU, GPU, memory, etc.) are separated based on function but connect through a centralized interfacing circuit board; imagine that these components were instead designed into the board itself. Where an SoC has all the components placed on a single circuit die, a motherboard connects those pieces of hardware as discrete components or as add-in cards and modules.

By placing all of the components of an SoC on a single chip (Figure 1), manufacturing costs are lower, performance is increased, and power consumption is reduced. The downside is that, unlike a full-sized computer, they are locked into their design configuration with no upgrade path. It also means that any component failure is chip-wide, meaning the other components in the signal chain fail as well, or their functionality is severely impaired. SoCs also offers a small footprint that allows them to be integrated into mobile devices, autonomous vehicles, UAVs, robotics, medical devices, and more.

Figure 1: System on a Chip ( Nordic nRF52833 Bluetooth 5.1 SoCNordic nRF52833 Bluetooth 5.1 SoC )

SiP: System-in-a-Package

An SiP (System-in-a-Package) is similar to an SoC, but instead of incorporating all the components on a single die, SiPs feature several ICs that are enclosed in one or more chip-carrier packages (their own separate dies) that can be stacked for increased functionality. This means that RAM, storage, I/Os, and other components are stacked vertically or horizontally on a single substrate. They are then connected using fine wire or solder bumps, and then bonded to the package (PCB).

Generally, SiPs are produced using several different technology types – module (single or multichip), a stacked die, or a 3D package. Modules are the standard package, incorporating one or more horizontal component dies with chip-level interconnects. Stacked packages place those dies in a vertical orientation with chip-level interconnects, allowing more components to be incorporated in a confined space. Finally, a 3D package provides a combination of pre-packaged devices and components that are stacked vertically with package-level interconnects.

Manufacturing SiPs using the stacked method means that few external components are needed to make the package function, making it easier to integrate into compact and complex systems, and it also simplifies PCB layouts. SiPs (Figure 2) are widely used in smartphones, MP3 players, IoT devices, and wearables, including smartwatches. As with any technology, SiPs do have a drawback in terms of manufacturing, as any defective chip in the stack will render the entire unit non-functional, even if the others work correctly.

(Figure 2: System-in-a-Package (Cypress BLE System-in-Package (SiP) ModuleCypress BLE System-in-Package (SiP) Module )

CoM: Computer-on-Module

A CoM (Computer-on-Module) is a step above an SoC, and is placed between a full-on computer and a microcontroller when it comes to performance and functionality. By definition, CoMs are complete embedded computers built on a single PCB, which are similar to SoCs and SBCs in that they host a microprocessor, RAM, and I/O controllers, but they rely on a carrier board for all other input/output peripherals to be connected. This provides CoMs with an advantage over the others in this list, in that the carrier board can be upgraded with the latest CoM (Figure 3) when they become available.

Another advantage of using a carrier board is that they can also be outfitted with FPGAs, which can port functions to the CoM or carrier board for increased performance. Being able to upgrade the processor without needing to redesign the carrier board can save costs, development times, and the ability to develop both hardware and software simultaneously. The modular aspect of CoM design is also useful for manufacturers making a line of scaled products, providing the ability to swap out some parts of the system, enabling different levels of functionality between an entry-level product and a feature-packed high-end model. Each level of the product could also have its own set of peripherals that could be swapped out as new upgrades become available, making them cost-effective in both the short and long term.

Figure 3: Computer-on-Module ( UltraZed Starter KitUltraZed Starter Kit )

The differences between SoCs, SiPs, and CoMs are minimal, and yet each has its advantages and disadvantages over the others, which boils down to functionality and application types. While SiPs and SoCs can be used for compact and embedded solutions, such as smartphones and wearables, CoMs have an upgrade path and can be utilized as full-blown computers to some extent.

Differences Between SoCs, SiPs, and CoMs

SoC	SiP	CoM
Integrates all components on a single die	Components are stacked and interconnected	Essentially a full-blown PC
Can contain analog, digital, and wireless technologies	Can contain any number of integrated ICs for increased functionality	Rely on an add-in module and a carrier board to function
Offers higher performance and reduced power consumption	Can be stacked vertically or horizontally, maximizing space	Can be easily upgraded or have components replaced if failure occurs
Almost always includes native input/output subsystems	SiP design can be simplified, keeping costs low	Can include additional processors, such as FPGAs
Provides reduced latency between components	Fewer components are needed to make the platform function	Saves on development costs and production times
Manufacturing costs are low	Dominates the mobile industry due to its small footprint	Can be scaled to include additional functionalities if required

Glossary

CoM: Computer-on-Module
eMMC: embedded Multi-Media Controller
Flash: Data storage technology based on programmable memory
GPU: Graphics Processing Unit
I2C: Inter-Integrated Circuit
IC: Integrated Circuit
I/O: Input/Output
PC: Personal Computer
PCIe: Peripheral Component Interconnect express
RAM: Random Access Memory
ROM: Read-Only Memory
SATA: Serial AT Attachment
SBC: Single Board Computer
SiP: System-in-a-Package
SoC: System-on-a-Chip
SPI: Serial Peripheral Interface
UART: Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter
UAV: Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
USB: Universal Serial Bus

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What You Need to Know About DDR5 Memory

vijeth_ds — Wed, 23 Oct 2024 07:52:50 GMT

Current Revision posted to Documents by vijeth_ds on 10/23/2024 7:52:50 AM

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Introduction

The growing need for increased memory bandwidth and higher performance targets of next-generation computer systems creates a fundamental challenge for contemporary system architects. The CPUs strive for higher core count, improved performance per core, and greater power efficiency. Advanced cores need sufficient memory bandwidth, whereas loads of such cores require high DRAM (Dynamic RAM) capacity and high bandwidth. New memory architectures beyond DDR4 are required to meet the next-generation bandwidth-per-core requirements.

DDR5 memory solves the need for higher bandwidth, offering substantial improvements over previous DRAM generations. With a robust list of new and enhanced features, DDR5 upgrades overall system performance and contributes faster data transfer and lower power consumption. DDR5 is primarily about density, making it particularly convenient for enterprise, cloud, and big data applications. It powers the new and emerging technology realms of artificial intelligence, autonomous cars, augmented reality, embedded vision, and High-Performance Computing (HPC).

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DDR5 Memory and Its Benefits

DDR5 is a fifth-generation double data rate (DDR) SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory). While previous generations of memory concentrated on minimizing power consumption and were driven by mobile and data center applications, DDR5's primary driver has been the need for more bandwidth. DDR5 promises improvements over DDR4 in memory capacity, speed, and power efficiency. Several key feature additions and improvements enable DDR5's bandwidth increase; primary among these is a dramatic increase in device data rates.

While DDR4 spanned data rates from 1600 MT/s to 3200 MT/s, DDR5 is currently defined with data rates ranging from 3200 MT/s up to 6400 MT/s. This data rate increase not only allows the existing bandwidth-per-core to remain equal as core-per-CPU counts increase (shown with the red arrow in Figure 1), but it also allows for higher bandwidths. The following figure includes data bus efficiencies from a simulated workload to calculate potential effective bandwidth across different DDR4 and DDR5 data rates.

Figure 1: DDR5 Maintains Bandwidth with Increased Core Count (Image Source: Micron)

Another significant change with DDR5 is power architecture. With DDR5, power management moves from the motherboard to the DIMM due to a 12V power management chip (PMIC). DIMMs are printed-circuit board (PCB) modules with several DRAM chips supporting either a 64-bit or a 72-bit data width. Voltage regulation is moved from the motherboard to the individual DIMM, leaving DIMMs responsible for their own voltage regulation needs.

With DDR5, the DRAM and buffer chip registering clock driver (RCD) voltage drops from 1.2 V down to 1.1 V, some eight percent lower than what DDR4 achieved. On its own, this may not seem like a great deal, but keep in mind that companies can employ tens of thousands of machines. In tightly packed servers, memory modules can consume hundreds of watts, so it ultimately adds up. DDR5 also enables the increased reliability, availability, and serviceability (RAS) that modern data centers need.

In DDR5, each DIMM has two channels, as shown in Figure 2. Each of these channels is 40-bits wide: 32 data bits with eight ECC bits. While the data width is the same (64-bits total), having two smaller independent channels improves memory access efficiency. In the dual-channel DDR5 DIMM architecture, the left and right side of the DIMM are each served by an independent channel. The memory modules are installed into matching banks. The overall result is improved concurrency and essentially a doubling of available memory channels in the system.

Figure 2: DDR5 DIMM illustrating two independent sub-channels (Image Source: Micron)

DDR5 also improves error correction (ECC) over DDR4, an essential feature for servers. What's more, DDR5 chips have this feature 'on-die,' thereby removing the memory controller overseeing this function from the CPU. Alongside error transparency mode, post-package repair, and read/write CRC modes, on-die ECC brings additional gains in processing power and paves the way for higher-capacity DRAM, which translates to higher-capacity DIMMs.

DDR5 RAM sticks have the same number (288) of pins as DDR4 DRAM modules. The pin layout, however, is different. That means the user won't be able to use DDR5 modules on a DDR4 slot. DDR5's improved design comprises 32 banks distributed over eight bank groups, as compared to 16 bank structures in DDR4. The burst length on DDR5 is doubled from eight to 16. This will allow a single burst to access up to 64 Bytes of data, importing significant improvement in concurrency (single channel) and memory efficiency (dual channel).

DDR5 has double the capacity of DDR4. This means that it will have the capacity to hold from 32 GB to 64 GB, instead of the 16 GB of DDR4. This larger memory is expected to increase the battery life of the device. It is to be noted that energy-saving RAM is important for all devices that work on battery power, such as headphones and mobile phones, laptops, and tablets. Things look even brighter on the enterprise side. DDR5 supports die stacking, so memory vendors can potentially stack up to 16 dies onto one chip. As a result, a single Load-Reduced DIMM (LRDIMM) can come with a capacity of 4TB.

Table 1: Key feature differences between DDR4 and DDR5 SDRAM

Whom Does This Benefit?

Data centers have the greatest need for the latest memory technology, as they must satisfy the constant demand for lower power requirements, higher density for more memory storage, and faster transfer speeds. Micron has been instrumental in leading the definition and adoption of DDR5 in datacenters, working towards meeting consumer demands for faster boot and loading times while fitting within the platform's tight power constraints. With DDR5, servers work more efficiently and essentially squeeze more ROI out of the investment made in the server. DDR5 enables next generation of server workloads by delivering more than an 85 percent increase in memory performance. The key to enabling these workloads is higher-performance, more dense, higher-quality memory.

Figure 3: DDR5 will enable the next generation of server workloads by delivering more than an 85% increase in memory performance (Image Source: Micron).

Micron's low-power DDR5 (LPDDR5) DRAM is designed to solve the growing demand for higher memory performance and lower energy consumption across a wide array of markets beyond just mobile, including automotive, client PCs, and networking systems built for 5G and AI applications. Not to be confused with DDR5, LPDDR5 is the fifth-generation Low Power Double Data Rate technology specifically intended to be used in mobile devices for their higher power efficiency. The energy efficiency of LPDDR5 enables high-performance computing for automobiles while minimizing power consumption for both electric and conventional vehicles, resulting in greener transportation with lower emissions. Micron's automotive LPDDR5 is also ruggedized to support extreme temperature ranges, and is qualified for automotive reliability standards.

Developers of cloud, enterprise, and artificial intelligence applications are also going to benefit from next-generation DDR5 DIMMs. Memory and storage are the heart of AI. With many AI accelerator options, including GPUs, FPGAs, and ASICs, the heterogeneous data center continues to demand high performance and high-density memory.

Figure 4: Different AI Tasks require different memory and storage (Image Source: Micron)

Micron sees varying memory and storage requirements depending on the landscape and the AI task being performed (Figure 4). The next generation of memory and storage technologies is key to alleviating the bandwidth, latency, density, power, and cost bottlenecks that would otherwise limit future AI applications.

DRAM, LPDDR4, 32 Gbit, 1G x 32bit, VFBGA	DRAM, LPDDR5, 64 Gbit, 1G x 64bit, FBGA
MT53D1024M32D4DT-046 WT:D For More InformationFor More Information	MT62F1G64D8CH-036 WT:A For More InformationFor More Information

DRAM, LPDDR4, 32 Gbit, 1G x 32bit, VFBGA

DRAM, LPDDR5, 64 Gbit, 1G x 64bit, FBGA

MT53D1024M32D4DT-046 WT:D

For More InformationFor More Information

MT62F1G64D8CH-036 WT:A

For More InformationFor More Information

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Tags: micron, tech spotlight, tech_spotlight, lpddr5, ddr5

What You Need to Know About DDR5 Memory

vijeth_ds — Wed, 23 Oct 2024 07:52:12 GMT

Revision 2 posted to Documents by vijeth_ds on 10/23/2024 7:52:12 AM

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Introduction

Micron Memory

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DDR5 Memory and Its Benefits

Figure 1: DDR5 Maintains Bandwidth with Increased Core Count (Image Source: Micron)

Figure 2: DDR5 DIMM illustrating two independent sub-channels (Image Source: Micron)

Table 1: Key feature differences between DDR4 and DDR5 SDRAM

Whom Does This Benefit?

Figure 3: DDR5 will enable the next generation of server workloads by delivering more than an 85% increase in memory performance (Image Source: Micron).

Figure 4: Different AI Tasks require different memory and storage (Image Source: Micron)

DRAM, LPDDR4, 32 Gbit, 1G x 32bit, VFBGA	DRAM, LPDDR5, 64 Gbit, 1G x 64bit, FBGA
MT53D1024M32D4DT-046 WT:D For More InformationFor More Information	MT62F1G64D8CH-036 WT:A For More InformationFor More Information

DRAM, LPDDR4, 32 Gbit, 1G x 32bit, VFBGA

DRAM, LPDDR5, 64 Gbit, 1G x 64bit, FBGA

MT53D1024M32D4DT-046 WT:D

For More InformationFor More Information

MT62F1G64D8CH-036 WT:A

For More InformationFor More Information

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Tags: micron, tech spotlight, tech_spotlight, lpddr5, ddr5

What Are The Most Common Fiber Optics Problems?

dychen — Mon, 27 Nov 2023 19:56:22 GMT

Current Revision posted to Documents by dychen on 11/27/2023 7:56:22 PM

An overview of potential problems in fiber optic communication and ways to reduce them.

Avoiding Signal Loss in Fiber Optics

Fiber optic communication uses pulses of light to transmit data along thin strands of glass or plastic. Because the technology is reliable and supports long distances with higher speeds than other connections, fiber optics have revolutionized the telecommunications industry. The advantage of high-speed, buffer-free, and high bandwidth Internet make fiber optic communications systems the preferred choice for telecommunications backbone infrastructure, Ethernet systems, broadband distribution, and other network applications. Compared to copper-based Internet, fiber optic communications can accommodate noticeably higher data rates with lower loss levels in the transmission medium. Fiber optic systems, however, can only be considered a panacea for some problems. Fiber optic loss is a concern during connector and cable selection and installation. This article discusses the common issues experienced in fiber optic performance.

Common Problems with Fiber

Attenuation is the loss of optical power due to absorption, bending, scattering, and other loss mechanisms that may occur when the light is transmitted through the fiber. Attenuation results in a weakened signal strength. Fiber optic losses can be categorized into two types: (i) intrinsic, which includes losses due to absorption, dispersion, and scattering, and (ii) extrinsic, which includes losses due to splicing, bending, and losses at the connector.

Extrinsic Fiber losses

Extrinsic losses in optical fiber occur due to reflections, roughness on end faces, angular errors, or radial misalignment. The following are the various types of extrinsic losses.

(i) Bending loss (radiative loss): Bending losses can occur whenever an optical fiber bends or flexes. Two types of bending loss exist:

Macro-bending Loss: Macro-bending losses occur due to radii bends larger than the fiber diameter. With slight bends, losses are extremely small. As the radius of curvature decreases, losses increase exponentially.
Micro bending Loss: Micro bending losses are associated with small perturbations of the fiber, induced by non-uniformities during manufacturing or stresses during the cabling of the fiber.

(ii) Splice Loss: Optical power loss at the splicing point is known as splice loss. Splice loss cannot be completely avoided, but proper methods can reduce it substantially.

(iii) Insertion Losses: Insertion or connector losses are potential losses in signal strength that can arise when a device or a connector is connected to an optical fiber transmission line. End-face defects such as cracks, contamination, pits in the fiber, misalignment between the cores, and poor contact between cores can cause insertion losses.

Figure 1: Insertion losses in optical fiber

Intrinsic Fiber Losses

Intrinsic fiber optic loss or attenuation occurs within the fiber optic core. There are several types of intrinsic losses.

Scattering loss occurs when light interacts with density fluctuations in the fiber. The light is not absorbed, but sent into another direction. Scattering losses occur due to microscopic variations in the material density, compositional fluctuations, structural homogeneities, and manufacturing defects.
Absorption loss describes losses caused by the presence of residual impurities in the fiber optic cable. This loss mechanism relates to the composition and fabrication of the fiber. Absorption causes dissipation of the transmitted optical power in the optical waveguide in the form of heat.
Dispersion are distortions in the optical signals that can occur as they propagate through optical fibers. Dispersion can be intramodal and intermodal. With intermodal dispersion, the pulse broadens due to the difference in propagation delay between modes in multimode fiber. Intramodal or chromatic dispersion describes the way the pulse spreads in single-mode fiber due to a material’s dispersive properties, or the variation of refractive index as a function of wavelength.

Figure 2: Different types of losses in optical fiber

Fiber Optics

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Dealing with the Challenges of Fiber

It is impossible to eliminate optical fiber loss; however, proper planning, careful installation, better quality materials and components, as well as regular testing of the fiber ensures the best results. Fiber loss in a network can be minimized by following these procedures:

(i) Polish and clean the ends
A rough cut can cause scattered signals and trap dirt particles around the edges. Because the fiber is hair-thin, airborne dust particles can scatter and absorb light signals. The ends should be cut with a cleaving tool, polished with a professional polishing kit, and then wiped with a lint-free isopropyl alcohol wipe.

(ii) Minimize end gaps

Signal losses occur if there is a gap between two fibers in an optical fiber connection. Such a gap allows the air to refract the emerging cone of light, which can cause signal loss. The fibers should not be cut at an angle and the connecting fibers should line up perfectly without any gaps.

(iii) Connect the same-size fibers

A network may require the connection of two different types of fiber. Losses will be minimal if the signal travels from a small fiber to a larger one. The signal should never travel from a large fiber to a smaller one, as this will result in substantial losses due to the difference in core size and the numerical aperture of most small core fibers.

(iv) Avoid unnecessary bending

The cable radius of the optical fiber cable should match the manufacturer's recommended installation bending radius. The installation route should be free of sharp bends. The use of suitable conduits during installation will minimize damage arising from bends.

(v) Protection of the connection

An optical fiber connection should be shielded from dirt, water, salt spray, high/low temperatures, and shock. Shielding takes the form of a purpose-built box or high-quality, rugged connector housing. Both must have a secure locking mechanism to protect the interface from ingress.

Molex Fiber Optic Cables and Connectors

Passive media components such as cables, cable splices, and connectors have the potential to cause attenuation in optical data links. Molex offers ruggedized fiber optic cables and connectors with low signal loss for a broad range of data transmission solutions.

Molex FlexiBend MPO/NTP cable assemblies

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Molex FlexiBend MPO/MTP cable assemblies (Part No.1062250013) are outfitted with a flexible shape holding boot to ease cable routing, and accommodate low-profile installations where cabinet doors or front panels might interfere with conventional straight-style bend-limiting boots. FlexiBend optical cable assemblies allow cable exits in varying positions, from straight to a 90° angle. FlexiBend cable assemblies are used in a wide variety of applications, including communication and industrial equipment cabinets, medical, and aerospace/defense applications.

Molex 106397 Series LC2+ Fiber Optic Connector

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Molex’s LC2+ connectors have greater durability and robustness than the industry standard plastic connectors. The LC2+ series are the industry’s only connectors that feature a metal housing, providing a high-performance discrete fiber solution for installations in harsh operating environments. Molex also offers LC2+ cable assemblies.

Summing up: Avoiding problems in fiber optic networks

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The advantages of fiber optics, such as higher bandwidth and error free transmission distance , make it a compelling alternative to copper wires for data transmission. During the design and installation of a fiber optic network, factors that cause link loss and signal degradation must be considered. The implementation of fiber optic cabling best practices will ensure the proper environment for a fiber optic network. Molex offers a complete line of high-performance fiber adapters and connectors that are well-suited for implementing fiber optic connectivity in data centers and industrial environments.

For more information, check out our Essentials on Fiber Optics.

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Tags: bending loss, internet, molex, splice loss, fiber, tech spotlight, network, data transmission, backbone infrastructure, insertion loss, scattering, fiber optic, dispersion, connectivity, absorption, communication

What Are The Most Common Fiber Optics Problems?

dychen — Mon, 27 Nov 2023 19:55:44 GMT

Revision 6 posted to Documents by dychen on 11/27/2023 7:55:44 PM

An overview of potential problems in fiber optic communication and ways to reduce them.

Related Essentials

Avoiding Signal Loss in Fiber Optics

Common Problems with Fiber

Extrinsic Fiber losses

Extrinsic losses in optical fiber occur due to reflections, roughness on end faces, angular errors, or radial misalignment. The following are the various types of extrinsic losses.

(i) Bending loss (radiative loss): Bending losses can occur whenever an optical fiber bends or flexes. Two types of bending loss exist:

Macro-bending Loss: Macro-bending losses occur due to radii bends larger than the fiber diameter. With slight bends, losses are extremely small. As the radius of curvature decreases, losses increase exponentially.
Micro bending Loss: Micro bending losses are associated with small perturbations of the fiber, induced by non-uniformities during manufacturing or stresses during the cabling of the fiber.

(ii) Splice Loss: Optical power loss at the splicing point is known as splice loss. Splice loss cannot be completely avoided, but proper methods can reduce it substantially.

Figure 1: Insertion losses in optical fiber

Intrinsic Fiber Losses

Intrinsic fiber optic loss or attenuation occurs within the fiber optic core. There are several types of intrinsic losses.

Scattering loss occurs when light interacts with density fluctuations in the fiber. The light is not absorbed, but sent into another direction. Scattering losses occur due to microscopic variations in the material density, compositional fluctuations, structural homogeneities, and manufacturing defects.
Absorption loss describes losses caused by the presence of residual impurities in the fiber optic cable. This loss mechanism relates to the composition and fabrication of the fiber. Absorption causes dissipation of the transmitted optical power in the optical waveguide in the form of heat.
Dispersion are distortions in the optical signals that can occur as they propagate through optical fibers. Dispersion can be intramodal and intermodal. With intermodal dispersion, the pulse broadens due to the difference in propagation delay between modes in multimode fiber. Intramodal or chromatic dispersion describes the way the pulse spreads in single-mode fiber due to a material’s dispersive properties, or the variation of refractive index as a function of wavelength.

Figure 2: Different types of losses in optical fiber

Fiber Optics

Shop our wide variety of fiber optics connectors, adapters, and cable assemblies by Molex.

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Dealing with the Challenges of Fiber

(ii) Minimize end gaps

(iii) Connect the same-size fibers

(iv) Avoid unnecessary bending

(v) Protection of the connection

Molex Fiber Optic Cables and Connectors

Molex FlexiBend MPO/NTP cable assemblies

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Molex 106397 Series LC2+ Fiber Optic Connector

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Summing up: Avoiding problems in fiber optic networks

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For more information, check out our Essentials on Fiber Optics.

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Understanding Samtec Flyover Technology for FPGA Applications

dychen — Mon, 27 Nov 2023 17:36:54 GMT

Current Revision posted to Documents by dychen on 11/27/2023 5:36:54 PM

The rapid increase of bandwidth requirements presents seemingly insurmountable challenges for effective heat management and signal routing, due to lossy printed circuit boards (PCBs), vias, and other components. With a high-speed signal, the PCB's dielectric constant becomes an issue, and traces must be shaped and routed perfectly to avoid EMI/EMC, signal coupling, and crosstalk. Additional factors, such as impedance, attenuation, jitter, intersymbol interference, and reflections all impact signal integrity. As such, system designers use new system architectures to extend the signal reach and density. High-speed data rates are made possible by routing the signals through ultra-low-skew twinax cable assemblies or optical cable assemblies, instead of the potentially lossy traces in PCBs. Allowing data to “fly over” lossy board materials negates the need for layout complexities and limits signal degradation.

In the FPGA world, transceivers support data rates up to 28/56 Gbps and beyond. However, transferring data at these rates over long lengths in lossy PCB materials can be tricky. The FPGA industry has thus adopted the approach of routing data via copper or optical cable assemblies. This Tech Spotlight will highlight the benefits and workings of Samtec Flyover® Technology, and also will explain how it’s a good fit for high-speed data connectivity in FPGA applications.

Samtec Flyover® Technology

System requirements with high data rates have approached the physical limits of traditional electronic hardware design elements. Developers strive to balance increasing throughput, scalability, and density demands with concerns such as power consumption, thermal dissipation, signal integrity (SI), time to market, and cost. Designers may use specialized PCB laminates to reach higher data rates. Unfortunately, these materials are expensive, and even with these exotic substances, at higher data rates trace lengths are limited. Figure 1 illustrates the practical limits of FR408 and MEGTRON 6 PCB laminates at specific data rates.

BANDWIDTH VS. TRADITIONAL & HIGH–SPEED MATERIALS
	FR408	MEGTRON 6	MICRO TWINAX	OPTICS
10 Gbps	<10"	10"	10"	10"
14 Gbps	<5"	<10"	10"	10"
28 Gbps	<2"	<5"	10"	10"
56 Gbps	0.0"	<2"	10"	10"
28 Gbps	0.0"	0.0"	<10"	10"

Figure 1: Comparison of SI of different materials at different trace lengths, -5dB Loss Target (Image Source: Samtec)

Of course, design options are available to extend signal reach. Multiple clock retimers and data recovery circuits can be added every few inches along the signal path. This approach solves the SI challenges of lossy PCBs. However, additional ICs complicate PCB design and add to BOM costs. In short, it is tough to route contemporary high-speed signals in a PCB. Are other solutions available?

Samtec Flyover® Technology breaks the constraints of traditional signaling substrate and hardware offerings, resulting in a cost-effective, high–performance, and heat-efficient answer to the challenges of 28/56 Gbps bandwidths and beyond. Signals traces route over the PCB via copper or optical cable assemblies, simplifying PCB design and minimizing thermal and latency issues. This design approach enhances data rate performance from chip to chip, board to board, or even system to system. In addition, Flyover® Technology provides performance and cost advantages compared to PCBs. Reduced thermal challenges, simplified board layout, fewer PCB layers, and less expensive PCB materials are some benefits of this new architecture. Figure 2 shows the simulation result of a "traditional" switch compared to a Flyover® technology-enabled switch. The junction temperature (T_j) is 130° C for the conventional switch, while the T_j for Flyover® technology-enabled system is 98.5° C.

Figure 2: Simulation results of Flyover Technology vs Conventional Switch (Image Source: Samtec)

Interconnects

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A popular example of Samtec Flyover® Technology is the FireFly™ Micro Flyover System™. The interconnect provides flexibility to use micro-footprint optical and copper interconnects interchangeably with the same connector system. The FireFly™ system enables chip-to-chip, board-to-board, on-board, and system-to-system connectivity at data rates up to 28 Gbps (and soon 56 Gbps) per lane, via optical cable at greater distances, or copper for cost optimization (Figure 3). Some of the features of the FireFly™ Micro Flyover System™ are:

Highest Density: The micro footprint of FireFly™ frees up space on the mainboard for additional components and/or connectors. The highest 28 Gbps bandwidth is available with x12 bidirectional channels in 0.63 square inches.
Ease of Routing: The two-piece board level interconnect isolates the signal and power to help ease trace routing compared to array systems. Flyover® Technology simplifies PCB design and allows greater component density under the Flyover.
Ease of Assembly: The rugged two-piece socket system, with weld tabs, latch locking, and loading guides, provides simplified mating and un-mating compared to a compression system, using mechanical screw downs and hardware.
Signal Integrity: By taking data connections "off-board" with Flyover® Technology, the easier signal integrity design improves electrical performance.
End Option Flexibility: Multiple end options connectors are available, including MPO (MTP®), MT, MXC®, and U-SDI Interfaces.
End-to-End Support: The FireFly™ Micro Flyover System supports data center, HPC and FPGA protocols, including 10/40/100 Gb Ethernet, InfiniBand™, Fibre Channel, and Aurora
Heat Sinks: The system provides integral heat sinks in several default designs, including pin-finned, flat fiber grooves for multi-row configurations, and custom designs.

Figure 3: Flyover® Technology Enables High Speed, Simplifies PCB Design (Image Source: Samtec)

Flyover Systems in FPGA Applications

FPGA manufacturers like Xilinx provide an array of characterization, development, and evaluation platforms targeted at application-specific tasks. Several of their platforms can be connected at high data rates to deliver a smooth and seamless environment for product development. Typically, these connections are made using various high-speed connectors or copper cable assembly options. The FireFly™ Micro Flyover System™ is another option that has increasingly gained traction for connecting multiple FPGA boards. It offers FPGA designers a choice of using either active optical engines or low-cost copper interconnects.

Samtec has recently released a new development platform for the FireFly™ Micro Flyover System™ optical engine: the 25 Gbps (x12) FireFly™ FMC+ Module. This new development tool provides up to 300 Gbps full-duplex bandwidth over 12 channels from an FPGA/SoC to an industry-standard multi-mode fiber optic cable. This kit supports protocols including Ethernet, InfiniBand, Fiber Channel, and Aurora, typically found in video, embedded computing, instrumentation, HPC, 5G, FPGA development boards, and data center applications. As a VITA 57.4 FMC+ solution, the Samtec 25 Gbps (x12) FireFly™ FMC+ Module can be used for optical data communication on any FPGA development board supporting high-speed multi-gigabit transceivers.

Figure 4a represents an image demonstration of the kit. The 25 Gbps (x12) FireFly™ FMC+ Module attaches to a Xilinx Virtex UltraScale+ FPGA VCU118 Evaluation Kit via the VITA 57.4 FMC+ connector. The 25 Gbps electrical signals travel from the FPGA on the VCU118 to the VITA 57.4 FMC+ connector set to the 25 Gbps (x12) FireFly™ optical into the transmitter. After the electrical to optical (E/O) conversion, photons travel from the FireFly™ through optical connectors. There are up to 100 meters of fiber optics that move back to the 25 Gbps (x12) FireFly™ optical engine receiver. After the optical-to-electrical (O/E) conversion, the electrical signals pass through the FireFly™, through the FMC+ connector, and back to the FPGA. Figure 4b represents the demonstration results based on the Vivado IBERT software. The BER (bit error rate) is roughly 7.69E-15, and eye patterns are wide open.

Figure 4a: 25 Gbps (x12) Optical FireFly™ FMC+ Module. 4b: Demonstration Result. (Image Source: Samtec)

Product Examples

The copper and optical cable assemblies of the FireFly™ Micro Flyover System™ provide the flexibility to achieve higher data rates and/or greater distance needs, while simplifying board design and enhancing performance. The optical version allows data over a longer distance of up to 100m, whereas the copper typically supports up to a few meters in length, assuming similar drive conditions. Optical links also provide electrical isolation, allowing for significant noise immunity. The copper FireFly™ is favored if cost is a factor. We will now discuss both cable systems in detail:

Copper Cable System: The low-cost FireFly™ copper solution is based on Samtec's 100 Ω 34 AWG and 36 AWG Twinax ribbon cable. This cable is extensively used with existing high-speed cable assemblies. FireFly™ copper features performance of up to 28 Gbps with 4, 8, or 12 differential pairs. The positive latching feature is available for ease of engagement and disengagement. The cable system is pin-compatible with FireFly™ optical and assemblies are available in standard copper (ECUE), optimized copper (ECUE-2), and PCIe®-Over-FireFly™ copper (PCUE).

Figure 5: FireFly™ Micro Flyover Copper Cable System (Image Source: Samtec)

Optical Cable System: FireFly™ optical engine technology, paired with high-speed interconnects (ECUO), can offer 14 Gbps, 16 Gbps, 25 Gbps, and 28 Gbps. Samtec's FireFly™ micro optical engines occupy the smallest overall footprint, consume the least amount of power, and enable fast, easy, and low-cost fiber termination. They feature an integral heat sink in several default designs, including pin-finned (14 Gbps only), flat, fiber groove for multi-row configurations, and customs. The extended temperature FireFly™, with a -40 ºC to +85 ºC range for military and industrial applications (ETUO), is also available.

Figure 6: FireFly™ Micro Flyover Optical Cable System (Image Source: Samtec)

Evaluation and Development Kit Solutions: From concept and prototype to development and production, Samtec-designed and partner-designed kits and boards featuring the FireFly™ Micro Flyover System™ to simplify design and reduce time to market. The 14 Gbps FireFly™ FMC Module is one such example. Samtec's 14 Gbps FireFly™ FMC Module provides up to 140 Gbps full-duplex bandwidth over 10 channels from an FPGA to an industry-standard multi-mode fiber optic cable. The optical engines in FireFly™ provide adjustable power levels to support cable lengths up to 100m. As a VITA 57.1 FMC, the module can be used for optical data communication on any FPGA development board supporting high-speed multi-gigabit transceivers. It can run system data or BERT testing on all channels in parallel. This makes evaluation and development with FPGAs easier. It can be a good substitute for 28G test equipment.

Figure 7: 14 Gbps FireFly™ FMC Module (Image Source: Samtec)

Summing Up: Connectors for FPGAs

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Flyover systems have emerged as a viable approach to reducing the use of PCB traces to conduct high-speed signals. They simplify board design and enhance performance by limiting signal degradation. The FireFly™ Micro Flyover System’s small footprint allows for greater density and closer proximity to the IC, enabling lower power consumption, system cost, and thermal dissipation. It is well suited to FPGA systems, and helps to address their interconnectivity needs via copper, optical cable systems, and specially designed development kits.

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Tags: bandwidth, samtec, tech spotlight, pcb, 28G, fpga, summer of fpgas, micro flyover, 56G, high frequency, high speed, flyover® technology

Understanding Samtec Flyover Technology for FPGA Applications

dychen — Mon, 27 Nov 2023 17:35:05 GMT

Revision 7 posted to Documents by dychen on 11/27/2023 5:35:05 PM

Samtec Flyover® Technology

BANDWIDTH VS. TRADITIONAL & HIGH–SPEED MATERIALS
	FR408	MEGTRON 6	MICRO TWINAX	OPTICS
10 Gbps	<10"	10"	10"	10"
14 Gbps	<5"	<10"	10"	10"
28 Gbps	<2"	<5"	10"	10"
56 Gbps	0.0"	<2"	10"	10"
28 Gbps	0.0"	0.0"	<10"	10"

Figure 1: Comparison of SI of different materials at different trace lengths, -5dB Loss Target (Image Source: Samtec)

Figure 2: Simulation results of Flyover Technology vs Conventional Switch (Image Source: Samtec)

Interconnects

Shop our wide variety of interconnects, including board-to-board connectors, wire-to-board connectors, stacking board connectors and flat ribbon cable.

Shop Now

Don't forget to take our poll.

Highest Density: The micro footprint of FireFly™ frees up space on the mainboard for additional components and/or connectors. The highest 28 Gbps bandwidth is available with x12 bidirectional channels in 0.63 square inches.
Ease of Routing: The two-piece board level interconnect isolates the signal and power to help ease trace routing compared to array systems. Flyover® Technology simplifies PCB design and allows greater component density under the Flyover.
Ease of Assembly: The rugged two-piece socket system, with weld tabs, latch locking, and loading guides, provides simplified mating and un-mating compared to a compression system, using mechanical screw downs and hardware.
Signal Integrity: By taking data connections "off-board" with Flyover® Technology, the easier signal integrity design improves electrical performance.
End Option Flexibility: Multiple end options connectors are available, including MPO (MTP®), MT, MXC®, and U-SDI Interfaces.
End-to-End Support: The FireFly™ Micro Flyover System supports data center, HPC and FPGA protocols, including 10/40/100 Gb Ethernet, InfiniBand™, Fibre Channel, and Aurora
Heat Sinks: The system provides integral heat sinks in several default designs, including pin-finned, flat fiber grooves for multi-row configurations, and custom designs.

Figure 3: Flyover® Technology Enables High Speed, Simplifies PCB Design (Image Source: Samtec)

Flyover Systems in FPGA Applications

Figure 4a: 25 Gbps (x12) Optical FireFly™ FMC+ Module. 4b: Demonstration Result. (Image Source: Samtec)

Product Examples

Figure 5: FireFly™ Micro Flyover Copper Cable System (Image Source: Samtec)

Figure 6: FireFly™ Micro Flyover Optical Cable System (Image Source: Samtec)

Figure 7: 14 Gbps FireFly™ FMC Module (Image Source: Samtec)

Summing Up: Connectors for FPGAs

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For further discussion: What did you find most informative from this article?

Tags: bandwidth, samtec, tech spotlight, pcb, fpga, summer of fpgas, high frequency, high speed, flyover® technology

Understanding Samtec Flyover Technology for FPGA Applications

dychen — Mon, 27 Nov 2023 17:23:30 GMT

Revision 6 posted to Documents by dychen on 11/27/2023 5:23:30 PM

Samtec Flyover® Technology

BANDWIDTH VS. TRADITIONAL & HIGH–SPEED MATERIALS
	FR408	MEGTRON 6	MICRO TWINAX	OPTICS
10 Gbps	< 10"	10"+	10"+	10"+
14 Gbps	< 5"	< 10"	10"+	10"+
28 Gbps	< 2"	< 5"	10"+	10"+
56 Gbps	0.0"	< 2"	10"+	10"+
28 Gbps	0.0"	0.0"	< 10"	10"+

Figure 1: Comparison of SI of different materials at different trace lengths, -5dB Loss Target (Image Source: Samtec)

Figure 2: Simulation results of Flyover Technology vs Conventional Switch (Image Source: Samtec)

Interconnects

Shop our wide variety of interconnects, including board-to-board connectors, wire-to-board connectors, stacking board connectors and flat ribbon cable.

Shop Now

Don't forget to take our poll.

Highest Density: The micro footprint of FireFly™ frees up space on the mainboard for additional components and/or connectors. The highest 28 Gbps bandwidth is available with x12 bidirectional channels in 0.63 square inches.
Ease of Routing: The two-piece board level interconnect isolates the signal and power to help ease trace routing compared to array systems. Flyover® Technology simplifies PCB design and allows greater component density under the Flyover.
Ease of Assembly: The rugged two-piece socket system, with weld tabs, latch locking, and loading guides, provides simplified mating and un-mating compared to a compression system, using mechanical screw downs and hardware.
Signal Integrity: By taking data connections "off-board" with Flyover® Technology, the easier signal integrity design improves electrical performance.
End Option Flexibility: Multiple end options connectors are available, including MPO (MTP®), MT, MXC®, and U-SDI Interfaces.
End-to-End Support: The FireFly™ Micro Flyover System supports data center, HPC and FPGA protocols, including 10/40/100 Gb Ethernet, InfiniBand™, Fibre Channel, and Aurora
Heat Sinks: The system provides integral heat sinks in several default designs, including pin-finned, flat fiber grooves for multi-row configurations, and custom designs.

Figure 3: Flyover® Technology Enables High Speed, Simplifies PCB Design (Image Source: Samtec)

Flyover Systems in FPGA Applications

Figure 4a: 25 Gbps (x12) Optical FireFly™ FMC+ Module. 4b: Demonstration Result. (Image Source: Samtec)

Product Examples

Figure 5: FireFly™ Micro Flyover Copper Cable System (Image Source: Samtec)

Figure 6: FireFly™ Micro Flyover Optical Cable System (Image Source: Samtec)

Figure 7: 14 Gbps FireFly™ FMC Module (Image Source: Samtec)

Summing Up: Connectors for FPGAs

in partnership with

For further discussion: What did you find most informative from this article?

Tags: samtec, tech spotlight, summer of fpgas, flyover® technology

Understanding Samtec Flyover Technology for FPGA Applications

dychen — Mon, 27 Nov 2023 17:21:15 GMT

Revision 5 posted to Documents by dychen on 11/27/2023 5:21:15 PM

Samtec Flyover® Technology

BANDWIDTH VS. TRADITIONAL & HIGH–SPEED MATERIALS
	FR408	MEGTRON 6	MICRO TWINAX	OPTICS
10 Gbps	< 10"	10"+	10"+	10"+
14 Gbps	< 5"	< 10"	10"+	10"+
28 Gbps	< 2"	< 5"	10"+	10"+
56 Gbps	0.0"	< 2"	10"+	10"+
28 Gbps	0.0"	0.0"	< 10"	10"+

Figure 1: Comparison of SI of different materials at different trace lengths, -5dB Loss Target (Image Source: Samtec)

Figure 2: Simulation results of Flyover Technology vs Conventional Switch (Image Source: Samtec)

Interconnects

Shop our wide variety of interconnects, including board-to-board connectors, wire-to-board connectors, stacking board connectors and flat ribbon cable.

Shop Now

Don't forget to take our poll.

Highest Density: The micro footprint of FireFly™ frees up space on the mainboard for additional components and/or connectors. The highest 28 Gbps bandwidth is available with x12 bidirectional channels in 0.63 square inches.
Ease of Routing: The two-piece board level interconnect isolates the signal and power to help ease trace routing compared to array systems. Flyover® Technology simplifies PCB design and allows greater component density under the Flyover.
Ease of Assembly: The rugged two-piece socket system, with weld tabs, latch locking, and loading guides, provides simplified mating and un-mating compared to a compression system, using mechanical screw downs and hardware.
Signal Integrity: By taking data connections "off-board" with Flyover® Technology, the easier signal integrity design improves electrical performance.
End Option Flexibility: Multiple end options connectors are available, including MPO (MTP®), MT, MXC®, and U-SDI Interfaces.
End-to-End Support: The FireFly™ Micro Flyover System supports data center, HPC and FPGA protocols, including 10/40/100 Gb Ethernet, InfiniBand™, Fibre Channel, and Aurora
Heat Sinks: The system provides integral heat sinks in several default designs, including pin-finned, flat fiber grooves for multi-row configurations, and custom designs.

Figure 3: Flyover® Technology Enables High Speed, Simplifies PCB Design (Image Source: Samtec)

Flyover Systems in FPGA Applications

Figure 4a: 25 Gbps (x12) Optical FireFly™ FMC+ Module. 4b: Demonstration Result. (Image Source: Samtec)

Product Examples

Figure 5: FireFly™ Micro Flyover Copper Cable System (Image Source: Samtec)

Figure 6: FireFly™ Micro Flyover Optical Cable System (Image Source: Samtec)

Figure 7: 14 Gbps FireFly™ FMC Module (Image Source: Samtec)

Summing Up: Connectors for FPGAs

in partnership with

For further discussion: What did you find most informative from this article?

Tags: samtec, tech spotlight, summer of fpgas, flyover® technology

Understanding Samtec Flyover Technology for FPGA Applications

dychen — Mon, 27 Nov 2023 17:12:09 GMT

Revision 4 posted to Documents by dychen on 11/27/2023 5:12:09 PM

Introduction

sponsored by

Samtec Flyover® Technology

BANDWIDTH VS. TRADITIONAL & HIGH–SPEED MATERIALS
	FR408	MEGTRON 6	MICRO TWINAX	OPTICS
10 Gbps	< 10"	10"+	10"+	10"+
14 Gbps	< 5"	< 10"	10"+	10"+
28 Gbps	< 2"	< 5"	10"+	10"+
56 Gbps	0.0"	< 2"	10"+	10"+
28 Gbps	0.0"	0.0"	< 10"	10"+

Figure 1: Comparison of SI of different materials at different trace lengths, -5dB Loss Target (Image Source: Samtec)

Figure 2: Simulation results of Flyover Technology vs Conventional Switch (Image Source: Samtec)

Interconnects

Shop our wide variety of interconnects, including board-to-board connectors, wire-to-board connectors, stacking board connectors and flat ribbon cable.

Shop Now

Don't forget to take our poll.

Highest Density: The micro footprint of FireFly™ frees up space on the mainboard for additional components and/or connectors. The highest 28 Gbps bandwidth is available with x12 bidirectional channels in 0.63 square inches.
Ease of Routing: The two-piece board level interconnect isolates the signal and power to help ease trace routing compared to array systems. Flyover® Technology simplifies PCB design and allows greater component density under the Flyover.
Ease of Assembly: The rugged two-piece socket system, with weld tabs, latch locking, and loading guides, provides simplified mating and un-mating compared to a compression system, using mechanical screw downs and hardware.
Signal Integrity: By taking data connections "off-board" with Flyover® Technology, the easier signal integrity design improves electrical performance.
End Option Flexibility: Multiple end options connectors are available, including MPO (MTP®), MT, MXC®, and U-SDI Interfaces.
End-to-End Support: The FireFly™ Micro Flyover System supports data center, HPC and FPGA protocols, including 10/40/100 Gb Ethernet, InfiniBand™, Fibre Channel, and Aurora
Heat Sinks: The system provides integral heat sinks in several default designs, including pin-finned, flat fiber grooves for multi-row configurations, and custom designs.

Figure 3: Flyover® Technology Enables High Speed, Simplifies PCB Design (Image Source: Samtec)

Flyover Systems in FPGA Applications

Figure 4a: 25 Gbps (x12) Optical FireFly™ FMC+ Module. 4b: Demonstration Result. (Image Source: Samtec)

Product Examples

Figure 5: FireFly™ Micro Flyover Copper Cable System (Image Source: Samtec)

Figure 6: FireFly™ Micro Flyover Optical Cable System (Image Source: Samtec)

Figure 7: 14 Gbps FireFly™ FMC Module (Image Source: Samtec)

Summing Up: Connectors for FPGAs

For further discussion: What did you find most informative from this article?

Tags: samtec, tech spotlight, summer of fpgas, flyover® technology

Understanding Samtec Flyover Technology for FPGA Applications

dychen — Mon, 27 Nov 2023 17:09:58 GMT

Revision 3 posted to Documents by dychen on 11/27/2023 5:09:58 PM

Introduction

sponsored by

Samtec Flyover® Technology

BANDWIDTH VS. TRADITIONAL & HIGH–SPEED MATERIALS
	FR408	MEGTRON 6	MICRO TWINAX	OPTICS
10 Gbps	< 10"	10"+	10"+	10"+
14 Gbps	< 5"	< 10"	10"+	10"+
28 Gbps	< 2"	< 5"	10"+	10"+
56 Gbps	0.0"	< 2"	10"+	10"+
28 Gbps	0.0"	0.0"	< 10"	10"+

Figure 1: Comparison of SI of different materials at different trace lengths, -5dB Loss Target (Image Source: Samtec)

Figure 2: Simulation results of Flyover Technology vs Conventional Switch (Image Source: Samtec)

Interconnects

Shop our wide variety of interconnects, including board-to-board connectors, wire-to-board connectors, stacking board connectors and flat ribbon cable.

Shop Now

Don't forget to take our poll.

Highest Density: The micro footprint of FireFly™ frees up space on the mainboard for additional components and/or connectors. The highest 28 Gbps bandwidth is available with x12 bidirectional channels in 0.63 square inches.
Ease of Routing: The two-piece board level interconnect isolates the signal and power to help ease trace routing compared to array systems. Flyover® Technology simplifies PCB design and allows greater component density under the Flyover.
Ease of Assembly: The rugged two-piece socket system, with weld tabs, latch locking, and loading guides, provides simplified mating and un-mating compared to a compression system, using mechanical screw downs and hardware.
Signal Integrity: By taking data connections "off-board" with Flyover® Technology, the easier signal integrity design improves electrical performance.
End Option Flexibility: Multiple end options connectors are available, including MPO (MTP®), MT, MXC®, and U-SDI Interfaces.
End-to-End Support: The FireFly™ Micro Flyover System supports data center, HPC and FPGA protocols, including 10/40/100 Gb Ethernet, InfiniBand™, Fibre Channel, and Aurora
Heat Sinks: The system provides integral heat sinks in several default designs, including pin-finned, flat fiber grooves for multi-row configurations, and custom designs.

Figure 3: Flyover® Technology Enables High Speed, Simplifies PCB Design (Image Source: Samtec)

Flyover Systems in FPGA Applications

Figure 4a: 25 Gbps (x12) Optical FireFly™ FMC+ Module. 4b: Demonstration Result. (Image Source: Samtec)

Product Examples

Figure 5: FireFly™ Micro Flyover Copper Cable System (Image Source: Samtec)

Figure 6: FireFly™ Micro Flyover Optical Cable System (Image Source: Samtec)

Figure 7: 14 Gbps FireFly™ FMC Module (Image Source: Samtec)

Conclusion

For further discussion: What did you find most informative from this article?

Tags: samtec, tech spotlight, summer of fpgas, flyover® technology

Summer of FPGAs: The Bulls Eye®︎ High-Performance Test System

dychen — Mon, 27 Nov 2023 17:05:38 GMT

Current Revision posted to Documents by dychen on 11/27/2023 5:05:38 PM

Radio Frequency (RF) is an indispensable part of day-to-day wireless communication. RF technologies enable smartphone connectivity, Bluetooth, GPS navigation, and satellite communications. These everyday RF solutions typically operate at frequencies below 6 GHz. However, emerging technologies such as 5G networking, HPC/AI, and automotive 2.0 operate at larger higher bands, faster transmission speeds, and greater densities. Furthermore, the task of developing, qualifying, and validating FPGA boards for the technologies mentioned previously requires transceivers running at higher rates. Manufacturers of RF interconnects support this shift by favoring high-quality, precise, and performance-oriented RF products, capable of maintaining signal integrity and extremely low latency at higher frequencies. Precision RF interconnects support frequencies up to 110 GHz. When testing new designs, FPGA developers require precision test and measurement interconnect systems that maintain signal integrity at high frequencies. This Tech Spotlight article will focus on the Bulls Eye® High Performance Test System from Samtec, which can maintain signal integrity up to 70 GHz with a compact test point footprint.

How do youTest a High-Speed FPGA?

Semiconductor manufacturers constantly search for the best interconnect solutions to characterize the high-speed transceivers found on FPGAs. PCB (Printed Circuit Board)-mount SMA (SubMiniature version A) connectors are used in many situations to interface with test equipment and route signals found in modern transceivers. Figure 1 shows a Xilinx Spartan-6 FPGA SP623 characterization kit, which features several PCB-mount SMA connectors.

Figure 1: PCB-mount SMA connectors on the Xilinx Spartan-6 FPGA SP623 Characterization Kit (Image Source: Samtec)

This approach has worked for decades, as transceiver counts per FPGA were low, and PCB-mount SMA connectors supported data rates in the megabit and low gigabit per second range. As standard transceiver speeds surpassed 10 Gbps, the development of high-speed PCB-mount SMA connectors facilitated data rates up to 20 Gbps. However, another challenge sprung up due to Moore's Law: as ICs became more dense, with ever-shrinking process nodes, FPGA manufacturers increased transceiver counts on their high-speed semiconductor solutions. Characterization boards for these devices started requiring hundreds of PCB-mount SMA connectors.

This approach has proven impractical, due to PCB size and cost constraints. Additionally, intricate PCB layouts are required to support the dozens of discrete SMA connectors. To overcome this challenge, the Bulls Eye® High Performance Test System (Figure 2), designed as an SMA-replacement technology for test and measurement systems, was created by Samtec.

Figure 2: Bulls Eye® High Performance Test Buy Now

The Bulls Eye®︎ Test Point System

Bulls Eye offers reduced board space and trace lengths, higher performance, and lower cost than traditional PCB-mount SMA connectors. The high-density array designs of the Bulls Eye system provide up to 4x the high bandwidth signals in the same PCB real estate when compared to SMA connectors. Figure 3 shows the size difference of a traditional SMA (on the left) and a Bulls Eye test point (on the right) when equipped with the same number of connectors. The system is available in single or multi-port, or as a high-density ganged connector. The compression interface to the board makes attaching and removing Bulls Eye from a PCB simple and eliminates soldering costs. The contacts satisfy high cycle counts, and replacement components are easy to order.

Figure 3: Traditional SMA (on the left) vs. Bulls Eye test point (on the right) (Image Source: Samtec)

Bulls Eye has found an additional use on FPGA boards. Because it enables so much PCB real estate to be saved, the test head can be positioned closer to the device. Figure 4 shows a Xilinx Kintex UltraScale FPGA KCU1250 Characterization Kit with eight Bulls Eye pads (as highlighted).

Figure 4: Xilinx Kintex UltraScale FPGA KCU1250 Characterization Kit with eight Bulls Eye pads (Image Source: Samtec)

The Bulls Eye system has advanced from 20 GHz (BDRA and BQRA series), to 50 GHz (BE40A series), to the present 70 GHz (BE70A series) designs, with a system up to 90 GHz under development. Table 1 summarizes the Bulls Eye family from Samtec. The system has evolved in performance and flexibility, and is available in microstrip and stripline transmission solutions. The BE70A series proprietary cable design provides 360° grounding around a spring-loaded pogo-pin contact. In addition, the test assemblies furnish a 1.85-mm connection to instrumentation. The BE40A series is a 50 GHz double row system with signal and ground pogo pins. End 2 connectors are 2.92 mm and 2.40 mm, available in microstrip or stripline PCB transmission, and are backward compatible with legacy, double row BDRA series 20 GHz solutions.

Table 1: Bulls Eye Test Point System Cross Reference Guide (Source: Samtec)

Applications

FPGA Connectors

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A contributing factor to the popularity of the Bulls Eye High Performance Test System is that it complements FPGA characterization, evaluation, and development boards available in the market. Even the best boards have signal degrading vias, transmission lines, and connectors on the path from the device to the measuring instrument. Accurate de-embedding requires careful selection and measurement of calibration structures and interconnects. The following demonstrations and solutions show how the Bulls Eye system finds use in an FPGA board's environment.

A 70 GHz High-Performance Test Solution

This application example is based on Samtec's 56 Gbps PAM4 product demonstration platform, and highlights the advantage of using the Bulls Eye High Performance Test System. A Credo Bald Eagle 2 retimer (Figure 5a) transmits QPRBS31 pattern signals at 56 Gbps PAM4 data rates on five separate channels. These signals run differentially through about 1.5" of PCB trace to the 70 GHz Samtec BE70A Bulls Eye High Performance Test System. The signals travel from the Bulls Eye connector through phased match pairs of Samtec low-loss microwave coax cable, terminated with 2.4 mm precision RF connectors. These connectors mate to a Samtec SI evaluation board with NovaRay extreme density arrays. The signals travel from the coax cables, through the evaluation boards and Samtec NovaRay connector set, through another set of high-performance precision RF 2.4 mm cables, and back to the Bulls Eye connector. Finally, the data lanes circle back to the Credo Bald Eagle 2 receiver, recovering the data.

Setup of 70 GHz high-performance test point system	Results of demonstration

Figure 5a: Setup of 70 GHz high-performance test point system 5b: Results of demonstration (Image Source: Samtec)

Figure 5b shows the results. Specifically, there are zero errors, which is impressive for 56 Gbps PAM4 modulations. The Eye diagrams display signal amplitude with respect to time, and the resulting graphs resemble the shape of an eye. Increased noise will cause the eye to close, whereas, in an ideal scenario, the eye will appear wide-open. In the case of the Bulls Eye BE70A, the eye diagrams show eyes that are wide-open, with eye heights ranging from 180 to 248 mV, showing low Bit Error Rates (BER) of e-15.

112 Gbps PAM4 Silicon and Connector Evaluation Platform

The evolution to higher data rates places increasing demands on the design of practical SerDes (serializer/deserializer) channels. A PCB must be optimized for loss, reflections, crosstalk, and power integrity when dealing with 112 Gbps PAM4 signals. This is especially important for evaluation boards that let designers measure the performance of the silicon under varying load conditions. Samtec’s evaluation board features limited I/O count packages with short routing lengths, mated to minimal PCB interconnects, and an RF cable solution of the Bulls Eye High Performance Test System.

Figure 6: Powered evaluation board with Bulls Eye mounted opposite the test chip (Image Source: Image Source: Signal Integrity Journal)

The design of the silicon evaluation board (Figure 6) has a loss target (TX lane) of 3 dB at 28 GHz, including package, PCB, and 6" of BE70A cabling. An important design choice is to place the Bulls Eye block on the bottom side of the PCB, to allow closer positioning to the device package. This eliminates conflict with keep-outs for mounting holes, and results in PCB net lengths below 16 mm for the TX channels, each feeding an attached 6" compression mounted coax cable. With the overall topology decided, the package and PCB interconnects are modeled in iterative design cycles to optimize signal integrity for loss, reflection, and crosstalk, using ERL (effective return loss) as the primary design metric. The finished evaluation platform shows excellent BER results. Figure 7 shows the relative IL (insertion loss) contributions of the package, PCB, and cable assembly.

Figure 7: 106.25 Gbps PAM4 Tx measured Eye (left) and Channel IL breakdown (right) (Image Source: Signal Integrity Journal)

50 Ghz Bulls Eye SI Evaluation Kit

The 50 GHz Bulls Eye SI Evaluation Kit provides system designers, RF engineers, and SI engineers a solution for testing the 50 GHz Bulls Eye Double Row, High-Performance Test System. The 50 GHz Bulls Eye SI Evaluation Kit delivers a high-quality system with a robust mechanical design.

Figure 8. 50 GHz Bulls Eye SI Evaluation Kit (Image Source: Samtec)

The evaluation kit is available as a single PCB system with a compact form factor. Each PCB contains one compression interface that provides easy mating and eliminates soldering. The kit comes with one BE40A product Bulls Eye cable assembly. It can route high-frequency referential signals (8 total) from the BE40A product to high-precision RF connectors, and it supports multiple high-precision RF connector options (2.40 mm/2.92 mm SMAs).

Summing Up: The Bulls Eye®︎ FPGA Test System

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The proliferation of new technologies such as 5G networking, HPC/AI, and automotive 2.0 has accelerated the demand for new test equipment. Bulls Eye is well suited for high-performance test-point applications because of its compression interface, better efficiency, small footprint, and high cycle count. The Bulls Eye system makes it easier and more convenient for FPGA developers to develop and test their systems, by reducing the size of evaluation boards and bringing the test head closer to the device under test.

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Tags: testing, samtec, 70 GHz, tech spotlight, 90 GHz, pcb, fpga, bulls eye® high performance test system, SMA connector, compression interface, high frequency, rf

Summer of FPGAs: The Bulls Eye®︎ High-Performance Test System

dychen — Mon, 27 Nov 2023 17:03:26 GMT

Revision 9 posted to Documents by dychen on 11/27/2023 5:03:26 PM

How do youTest a High-Speed FPGA?

Figure 1: PCB-mount SMA connectors on the Xilinx Spartan-6 FPGA SP623 Characterization Kit (Image Source: Samtec)

Figure 2: Bulls Eye® High Performance Test Buy Now

The Bulls Eye®︎ Test Point System

Figure 3: Traditional SMA (on the left) vs. Bulls Eye test point (on the right) (Image Source: Samtec)

Figure 4: Xilinx Kintex UltraScale FPGA KCU1250 Characterization Kit with eight Bulls Eye pads (Image Source: Samtec)

Table 1: Bulls Eye Test Point System Cross Reference Guide (Source: Samtec)

Applications

FPGA Connectors

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A 70 GHz High-Performance Test Solution

Setup of 70 GHz high-performance test point system	Results of demonstration

Figure 5a: Setup of 70 GHz high-performance test point system 5b: Results of demonstration (Image Source: Samtec)

112 Gbps PAM4 Silicon and Connector Evaluation Platform

Figure 6: Powered evaluation board with Bulls Eye mounted opposite the test chip (Image Source: Image Source: Signal Integrity Journal)

Figure 7: 106.25 Gbps PAM4 Tx measured Eye (left) and Channel IL breakdown (right) (Image Source: Signal Integrity Journal)

50 Ghz Bulls Eye SI Evaluation Kit

Figure 8. 50 GHz Bulls Eye SI Evaluation Kit (Image Source: Samtec)

Summing Up: The Bulls Eye®︎ FPGA Test System

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Tags: samtec, tech spotlight, bulls eye® high performance test system

What is a Mixed Signal Oscilloscope?

dychen — Mon, 27 Nov 2023 16:57:26 GMT

Revision 23 posted to Documents by dychen on 11/27/2023 4:57:26 PM

A comparison of different types of oscilloscopes and an introduction to the mixed signal oscilloscope.

What are the Different Types of Oscilloscopes?

Oscilloscope Types and Architectures

Digital storage oscilloscope (DSO): DSO’s are suitable for low repetition rate or single-shot, high-speed, multichannel design applications.
Digital phosphor oscilloscope (DPO): DPOs display Z-axis (intensity) measurements in real-time and are ideal troubleshooting tools for advanced analysis, communication mask testing, digital debugging of intermittent signals, repetitive digital design, and timing applications.
Mixed signal oscilloscope (MSO): MSO’s help to quickly debug digital circuits using powerful digital triggering, high-resolution acquisition capability, and analysis tools.
Mixed domain oscilloscope (MDO): MDO’s have the same capabilities as MSO’s and include an integrated spectrum analyzer that adds RF debugging to the analog and digital capabilities.
Digital sampling oscilloscope: For very high-speed signal analysis, sampling oscilloscopes support jitter and noise analysis with ultra-low jitter acquisitions. They can achieve bandwidth and high-speed timing 10 times higher than other oscilloscopes for repetitive signals.

What is the Architecture of an Oscilloscope?

Figure 1: Serial-processing architecture

Figure 2: Parallel-processing architecture

What is a Mixed Signal Oscilloscope?

Oscilloscopes

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Tektronix 2 Series MSO

Figure 3: Tektronix 2 Series MSO

Table 1 mentions other essential specifications of the 2 Series MSO.

Features	MSO22	MSO24
Analog channels	2	4
Analog channel bandwidth	70 MHz, 100 MHz, 200 MHz, 350 MHz, and 500 MHz
Sample rate	1.25 GS/s All channel, 2.5 GS/s half channels Interleaved
Record length	10 M
Digital channels	16
AFG outputs	1 (multiplexed with Aux Out)
Function Generator	50 MHz, single channel with 128k point arbitrary waveform
Protocol Analysis	I2C, SPI, UART, CAN, CAN-FD, LIN, SENT

Table 1: Features of 2 series MSO

Figure 4: picture showing analog channels waveform view, decoded serial bus waveform

Other MSO's by Tektronix

Series Model	Bandwidth	Record Length	Channels	Color Display
6 Series B MSO Buy now	1 GHz - 10 GHz	62.5 M - 1 G	4 analog	15.6 in.
			8-32 digital (optional)	(395 mm)
5 Series B MSO Buy now	350 MHz - 2 GHz	62.5 M - 500 M	4–8 analog	15.6 in.
			8-64 digital (optional)	(395 mm)
4 Series MSO Buy now	200 MHz - 1.5 GHz	31.25 M - 62.5 M	4, 6 analog	13.3 in
			up to 48 digital (optional)	(338 mm)
3 Series MDO Buy now	100 MHz - 1 GHz	10 M	2, 4 analog	11.6 inches
			16 digital (optional)	(295 mm)
			1 RF (optional)
2 Series MSO Buy now	100 MHz - 200 MHz	1 M	2, 4 analog	10.1 in.
			16 digital	(180 mm)
MDO3000 Series Buy now	100 MHz - 1 GHz	10 M	2, 4 analog	9 in.
			16 digital (optional)	(229 mm)
			1 RF

Table 2: Tektronix MSO/MDO

Summing up: Mixed-Signal Oscilloscopes

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Tags: digital oscilloscope, mixed signal oscilloscope, tekdrive, TekScope, mdo, scope, tektronix, tech spotlight, mso, dso, portable oscilloscope, oscilloscope, dpo, function generator, analog oscilloscope

What's the Best Way to Make Cables?

dychen — Mon, 27 Nov 2023 16:54:30 GMT

Current Revision posted to Documents by dychen on 11/27/2023 4:54:30 PM

A comparison of various methods of making cables for electronic systems. Take the Connectors Quiz

Making Connections in Electrical Systems

Cable connections play an important role in the operation of any electrical system. Choosing the right cable and connection ensures proper operation, durability, and usability. Some of the common tasks required when constructing cables include stripping the cable, cutting strands, and twisting wires. Methods of attaching the connector to the cable include soldering and crimping. Cables should also be built with proper strain relief, so that unnecessary stress on the connection joint can be avoided.

What is Cable Termination?

Cable termination is the process of attaching the cable to a connector, terminal, or another electrical device. There are several cable termination techniques, and the correct termination method should be used based on the application. The key factors to be considered when terminating cables include cable type, voltage and current, environmental conditions, ease of use, durability and compliance. We will take a look at the most common type of termination used along with its advantages and disadvantages.

What are the Strengths and Weaknesses of Soldering?

Figure 1: Soldering a PCB
Source: Shabaz/element14

Soldering is the process of joining two or more metal components, by melting solder (a metallic alloy with a low melting point). The melted solder flows into the gap between components, and once cooled, solidifies, forming a strong and permanent bond.

Advantages

Reliability: Soldered joints are strong and durable, providing a reliable and permanent bond between metal components.
Low Cost: Soldering is a low-cost method of joining metal components, making it an attractive option for many electronics applications.
Versatility: Soldering can be used to join a wide range of metal components, including wire, circuit boards, and metal components of varying shapes and sizes.
Electrical Conductivity: Soldered joints provide good electrical conductivity, which is important in many electronics applications.
Repeatability: The process of soldering can be easily repeated, making it possible to make multiple joints quickly and efficiently.
Flexibility: Soldering allows for easy modification and repair of electronics, as the joints can be easily melted and re-soldered.

Disadvantages

Temperature sensitivity: Some electronic components may be damaged by the high temperatures used in soldering, which can limit the types of components that can be soldered.
Limited Strength: Soldered joints may not be as strong as joints created using other techniques, such as crimping.
Poor Performance at High Temperatures: Soldered joints may become weaker at high temperatures, making them less suitable for high-temperature applications.
Unsuitable for field installation: Soldering is a complex process with power and environmental requirements. Some environments may not be suitable for soldering. Soldering is also more time consuming than other techniques.
Limited Precision: The process of soldering can be imprecise, making it difficult to achieve tight tolerances or precise joint configurations.
Environmental Considerations: Some solders contain toxic metals, such as lead, that can be harmful to the environment and to human health if not properly handled.

What is Crimping?

Figure 2: Crimping a contact for a circular connector
Source: Bulgin

Crimping is a method for joining metal components in cables and wiring systems. In crimping, a connector is attached to the end of a cable by compressing the metal with a crimping tool. The compression deforms the metal connector, creating a secure mechanical connection between the connector and the cable.

Figure 3: Bulgin 14025 Crimp Tool

Advantages

Strong and Reliable: Crimped connections are strong and reliable, making them well-suited for applications where durability and reliability are important.
Fast and Efficient: Crimping can be faster and more efficient than soldering, which is helpful when making multiple connections.
Heat is not required: Crimping does not require heat, making it safer and more suitable for use with temperature-sensitive components and in applications where heat could damage other components.
Easy to Use: Crimping can be performed using simple hand tools, making it a convenient method for field installations.
Cost-Effective: Crimping can be a cost-effective method for joining metal components, as it does not require specialized equipment or materials.

Disadvantages

Limited Reusability: Once a crimped connection is made, it is difficult to separate the components without damaging them. This limits the ability to reuse or reconfigure the components.
Quality Control: Proper crimping technique and the use of the correct crimping tool are important to ensure a secure and reliable connection. Improper crimping can result in unreliable connections, or connections with a high resistance point.
Limited Precision: Crimping can be less precise than other methods of joining metal components, such as soldering.
Potential for Damage: Improper crimping technique can result in damage to the components being joined, which can impact their performance or cause problems in the electrical system.

Buccaneer Connectors

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Other Methods of Terminating Cables

Soldering and crimping are the most popular methods for connector installation; however, there are other methods of installing connectors. These include screw terminations, push-on, twist-on, and compression.

A screw termination is an easy-to-use method where the wire is inserted into the terminal, and held in place by a screw that is tightened onto the wire. The screw compresses the wire against the terminal, creating a secure and permanent connection.

Advantages

Strong and Reliable: Screw terminations create strong and reliable connections that can withstand stress, vibration, and other conditions that could impact the connection.
Easy to Use: Screw terminations are simple and straightforward to use, and can be performed using basic hand tools.
Versatile: Screw terminations can be used with a wide range of wire sizes and types, making them a versatile option for many applications.
Cost-Effective: Screw terminations are relatively inexpensive compared to other methods of joining wires to terminals or connectors.
Reusable: Screw terminations can be separated and reused, making them a good option for applications where the components may need frequent maintenance or reconfiguration.

Disadvantages

Time-Consuming: Screw terminations can be time-consuming to install, especially when making multiple connections. This can be a drawback in applications where fast and efficient installation is required.
Limited Precision: Screw terminations may not be as precise as other methods, such as soldering, and may not be suitable for applications where tight tolerances are required.
Quality Control: The quality of the connection is dependent on the accuracy and consistency of the screw tightening process. Under-tightening can result in weak or unreliable connections, while over-tightening can break the wire.
Compatibility: Screw terminations may not be compatible with certain types of components or in certain applications, such as high-frequency or high-temperature applications, where the screw tightening process could damage the components or affect their performance.
Reliability: Screws can become loose over time, leading to weak or unreliable connections.

Push-on and twist-on are two additional termination methods. Both provide a reliable connection between the cable and connector.

Push-on: A wire is inserted into a connector and held in place securely by a spring-loaded mechanism. This method is typically used for small-gauge wires and is often used in low-voltage applications, such as audio and video equipment.
Twist-on: The wires are twisted together and then inserted into the connector. The connector locks the twisted wires in order to make a secure connection. This method is typically used for larger-gauge wires and is often used in high-voltage applications, such as power distribution systems.

Buccaneer Series Connectors from Bulgin

Bulgin’s range of Buccaneer Circular Connectors offers reliable and robust connections for power, signal and data. For use in challenging environments, the Buccaneer range includes IP66, IP67, IP68-rated connectors, as well as waterproof connectors that are IP69K-rated.

Circular Data Connectors

The dustproof and waterproof Data Buccaneer range includes a wide variety of sealed circular connectors explicitly designed for Ethernet, USB, and SMB applications. Ethernet Buccaneer connectors satisfy Cat 5e requirements for data rates up to 100Mbps. USB Buccaneer connectors are designed to fulfill USB version 2.0 specifications for data rates up to 480Mbps, while SMB Buccaneer connectors have a frequency response of up to 4GHz. The Buccaneer series are well suited to a variety of industrial and harsh environment applications, both internal and external, where protection against the ingress of dust and moisture is a system requirement.

Circular Power Connectors

The Power Buccaneer range comprises the miniature 400, Mini, Standard, 900, 7000, and 6000 Series. Included in each range are a flex cable connector, Inline cable connector, and panel mounting connector options. Over-molded versions of the 400 series and Standard Buccaneer provide safe, secure, and tamperproof cable termination. The Buccaneer power connector range offers a wide choice of ruggedized plugs and receptacles providing 2 to 32 poles, and power ratings up to 600V and 32A. Buccaneer connectors are available with crimp, screw, or solder terminations.

Buccaneer EXPlora Series Circular Power Connector EXP-0921/05/S

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Buccaneer 9000 Series Circular Power Connector PXP9011/04/S/1

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Buccaneer USB Sealed Connector PX0842/A

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Buccaneer Ethernet Modular Connector PX0834/B

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Summing up: What are the Best Ways to make a Cable?

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There are a variety of ways to attach cables to connectors, each with its own strengths and weaknesses. The proper termination method should be chosen based on the requirements of the application. Applications with volume connections might need a fast termination method, while equipment that is frequently upgraded would require reusability. The Buccaneer range of power and signal connectors from Bulgin offers the option of solder, screw, and crimping contact terminations. When properly terminated, cables with Buccaneer connectors are reliable and secure, and have the durability to withstand installation in harsh environments.

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Tags: connectors, termination, ethernet, rj45, tech spotlight, cable, buccaneer, usb, ip, bulgin, crimping, soldering, smb

What is a Precision High Voltage Signal Chain?

dychen — Mon, 27 Nov 2023 16:52:52 GMT

Current Revision posted to Documents by dychen on 11/27/2023 4:52:52 PM

A look at the precision signal chains enabling high voltage applications in medical, industrial, automotive and more.

Providing a Path for Electrical Signals

In electrical engineering, a signal chain refers to the sequence of components and subsystems that process an electrical signal from its input to its output. This includes a wide range of devices such as amplifiers, filters, analog-to-digital converters, digital signal processors, and more. The goal of a signal chain is to process and transform an input signal into a desired output signal while maintaining the signal quality and accuracy.

Signal chain knowledge is particularly relevant during the design process, where engineers need to make decisions about which components to use and how to configure them. The performance of a signal chain is determined by the specifications of each individual component, as well as how those components are connected and configured. Therefore, it is important for engineers to have a deep understanding of the underlying principles and characteristics of each component in the signal chain to make informed design decisions.

What are the Different Types of Signal Chains?

Analog Devices offers a wide range of precision signal chains, which are designed to meet the unique requirements of different applications. Here's an overview of some of the different types:

Precision Narrow Bandwidth: supports applications that require precise measurements in a narrow bandwidth, such as medical instrumentation, power quality measurement, and gas and fluid analysis. It offers high accuracy and precision, with low noise and distortion, and is optimized for low power consumption.

Precision Medium Bandwidth: supports applications that require precise measurements in a medium bandwidth, such as audio and video processing, telecommunications, and power management. It offers high accuracy and precision, with low noise and distortion, and is optimized for low power consumption.

Precision Wide Bandwidth: supports applications that require precise measurements in a wide bandwidth, such as high-speed data acquisition, radar and sonar, and wireless communications. It offers high accuracy and precision, with low noise and distortion, and is optimized for high speed and high bandwidth.

Precision Low Power: supports applications that require high accuracy and precision, but with low power consumption. It is ideal for battery-powered and portable devices, as well as other applications where power consumption is a critical factor.

Precision Current Sensing: used to accurately measure the current flowing through a circuit. This is useful in many applications, such as motor control, battery management, and power supply design. The signal chain typically includes a current sense amplifier, which amplifies the small voltage drop across a sense resistor in the current path, and a high-resolution ADC, which converts the amplified voltage to a digital value.

Isolated Gate Drive and Sense: used to drive and sense high-voltage, high-current power switches, such as MOSFETs and IGBTs, in a safe and reliable way. The signal chain typically includes an isolated gate driver, which provides a high-voltage, high-current signal to the gate of the power switch, and an isolated current sense amplifier, which accurately measures the current flowing through the switch.

What is a Precision High Voltage Signal Chain?

Precision ICs

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High voltage applications are becoming increasingly common across a wide range of industries. Whether in the medical field for ultrasound and X-ray imaging, in the industrial field for high voltage power supplies and motor drives, or in the automotive field for electric vehicle powertrains, high voltage applications are critical to our modern way of life. However, designing high voltage systems can be a challenging and time-consuming task. High voltage circuits require careful consideration of many factors, including component selection, isolation, and safety. Analog Devices' Precision High Voltage Signal Chain Platform provides a comprehensive solution for high voltage applications, saving designers time and effort while providing accurate and reliable performance.

The Precision High Voltage Signal Chain Platform from Analog Devices is a highly integrated system that provides a complete solution for high voltage applications. It consists of a range of high-performance analog and digital components, including precision op-amps, voltage references, analog-to-digital converters, and digital isolators. These components are designed to work together seamlessly, providing designers with a complete signal chain solution that is easy to use and highly accurate.

What are some Application Examples of Precision High Voltage Signal Chain?

Adjustable High Voltage Power Supply

A precise adjustable power supply can be difficult to build, because there are many potential sources of error. Drift over time, temperature, and variations in the production process can all contribute to inaccuracies. The resistive networks that are commonly used for feedback can also cause errors.

Figure 1 illustrates the design of an adjustable high-voltage power supply that uses an IC instead of a resistor network to manage the output.

Figure 1. An LTspice® schematic for ~0 V to 110 V bias
Source: Analog Devices

The design consists of three pieces, the control voltage, an integrator, and a feedback path. An AD5683R (16-bit nanoDAC®) generates the control voltage (0V – 5V). The precision of the AD5683R enables the circuit to provide a bias voltage ranging from ~0 V to 110 V in ~1.68 mV steps. The integrator is the LTC6090, a high voltage op amp capable of rail-to-rail output and offering picoamp input bias current, essential for achieving the high accuracy desired. The LTC6090 compares the feedback voltage with the control voltage and integrates the difference, adjusting the output of V_BIAS to the desired setpoint. The LT1997-2 difference amplifier is set to provide a gain of 22. This corresponds to output bias voltage ranging from 0 V (0 V x 22) to 110 V (5 V x 22).

Accurate High Voltage Sensing

Digital voltmeters (DVMs) typically use 10MΩ resistor networks at their input. These resistor networks can introduce inaccuracies, especially in higher voltage circuits that involve high resistances. One solution is to use a high-impedance amplifier in electrometer configuration. Field-effect transistors (FETs) are often added to the inputs in order to make the input current as low as possible. FETs are typically low-voltage devices and can introduce their own voltage offsets. Monolithic amplifiers with FET inputs are available; however, they are also often low-voltage devices, limiting their utility in high-voltage applications.

The LTC6090 is a CMOS amplifier that can handle over 140V_P-P signal swings with sub-mV precision. The LTC6090 behaves as an ordinary unity-gain-stable op amp. A buffer stage can be added by providing 100% feedback with the classic unity-gain circuit. Additional FETs or floating biasing supplies are not needed. Figure 2 depicts a basic circuit for providing precision measurement of voltages, with an additional power converter, which uses a standard 9V battery.

Figure 2. Buffered Probe for Digital Voltmeter

The Precision High Voltage Signal Chain platform can be used for applications across a wide variety of industries. One such application is monitoring the battery in an electric vehicle. Precise measurement of the voltage and current of the battery pack can be used to optimize the charging and discharging of the battery pack, ensuring maximum efficiency and lifespan.

ADHV4702 - High-voltage Op-amp
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LTC6090 - High-voltage Op-amp
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AD5522 - Quad Measurement Unit with integrated ADC/DAC Buy Now

ADuM1441 - Digital Isolator
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AD5535BSDZ - 32 Ch. 14-bit DAC Development Kit
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LT1997 - Precision Funnel Amplifier
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AD7606C - 8 Ch. 18-bit ADC
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LT5400 - Quad Matched Resistor Network
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Summing up: Precision High Voltage Signal Chains

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As industry demands more accuracy, the tools that support such precision must evolve with them. A solution that enables accurate and reliable signal processing and control of high voltage applications is required across a variety of industries, including medical, automotive, and manufacturing. The Precision High Voltage Signal Chain Platform from Analog Devices is a highly versatile set of components that reduces system design time and costs, while enabling the development of highly reliable and accurate systems.

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Tags: precision, high voltage, industrial, adi, signal chain, dac, op amp, tech spotlight, difference amplifier, analog devices, measurement, automotive, medical, adc

How to Reduce Common Mode Noise in Audio Applications

dychen — Mon, 27 Nov 2023 16:51:06 GMT

Current Revision posted to Documents by dychen on 11/27/2023 4:51:06 PM

An isolated DC-DC converter can be an effective solution for eliminating unwanted noise in audio applications.

What causes Noise in Audio Devices?

In audio applications, noise can be a serious problem that can severely degrade the quality of a sound signal. Noise can manifest in many forms, including hum, hiss, and distortion. Hum is a low-frequency noise that is often caused by electromagnetic interference (EMI), while hiss is a high-frequency noise that is usually generated by electronic components or other electrical sources. Distortion, on the other hand, is caused by various factors such as clipping, saturation, or frequency response anomalies in the audio signal path. This article explores common mode noise, another common type of noise that can be characterized as hum or buzzing.

While hum, hiss, and buzz might seem like minor irritations, they can actually have a significant impact on the quality of an audio signal. Hum and hiss can make a recording sound muddy or unclear, while distortion can introduce unwanted harmonics that can ruin the overall quality of a sound.

What is Common Mode Noise?

Common mode noise occurs when there is a noise signal that is present on both the signal and ground conductors of an audio cable, rather than just the signal conductor alone (differential mode noise). This noise can result in an audible hum or buzzing sound in the audio signal. Common mode noise may also change in intensity or frequency depending on the location or orientation of the audio cables, or when other electrical devices are turned on or off in the vicinity.

Figure 1: Differential Mode Noise vs. Common Mode Noise
Source: CUI

Common mode noise can be caused by a variety of factors, including EMI from nearby electrical devices, ground loop problems in the audio system, or improperly shielded or grounded audio cables. In some cases, a component or circuit in the audio system itself can be a source of noise, such as a switched-mode power supply (SMPS), which are very common in audio devices.

Why does an SMPS generate Common Mode Noise?

An SMPS is a type of power supply that uses a switching regulator to convert electrical power from one form to another. An SMPS works in the following manner:

AC-to-DC conversion: The SMPS starts by converting the AC voltage from the wall outlet into DC voltage, typically through a rectifier circuit.
Filtering: The DC voltage is filtered to smooth out any voltage ripples or noise.
Power switching: The filtered DC voltage is then fed into a power switching stage, which consists of a power transistor or a group of transistors that are rapidly turned on and off by a control circuit.
Inductor and capacitor: The power switching stage drives an inductor that stores energy in a magnetic field, and a capacitor that stores energy in an electric field. These two components work together to maintain a stable output voltage.
Output regulation: The output voltage is then regulated to ensure that it remains constant, despite variations in the input voltage or load.
Feedback control: The output voltage is monitored by a feedback circuit, which adjusts the power switching stage to maintain a stable output voltage.

Switched-mode power supplies are commonly used in audio devices, due to their compact size, high efficiency, and ability to handle a wide range of input voltages; however, an SMPS can also be a significant source of common mode noise in audio systems.

SMPS generate common mode noise because they switch on and off at high frequencies (typically several tens to hundreds of kilohertz). These switching frequencies can create EMI that can couple into nearby audio cables or devices. This EMI can cause current to be pumped through stray capacitances in the circuit, such as those between the input and output of the SMPS or between the local ground and power return. This current flow can cause the connection to jump in voltage due to its self-impedance, resulting in common mode noise.

Figure 2: Common mode noise cause by stray capacitances
Source: CUI

Figure 2 illustrates the circuit of a typical switching power supply, where stray capacitance could cause common mode noise. Q1 represents the switching transistor, which rapidly switches from 0V to several hundred volts. C1 is the potential stray capacitance generated by this switching. C1 is coupled into the heatsink and because heatsinks are often grounded, this stray capacitance causes common mode noise in the ground. C2 also represents stray capacitance, which can potentially allow pulses of current into the secondary circuit, despite transformer isolation.

Reducing Common Mode Noise

Steps can be taken to mitigate any current caused by leakage capacitances. A grounded screen can be added to the SMPS transformer, blocking any coupling; however, size and safety requirements can make this physically impractical. Common mode chokes are often used, but they can cause other problems, such as degrading regulation. Adding spacing to minimize the transformer interwinding capacitance is an effective solution; however, this could add leakage inductance, which reduces efficiency and increases stress on components.

DC-DC Converters

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An elegant solution to reducing this capacitance is the use of a separate, isolated DC-DC converter. The larger the power supply, the greater the potential leakage capacitance, often in the range of hundreds of pF. This solution involves using a separate, isolated DC-DC converter to power the sensitive analog audio stage, which has relatively small power requirements. Typical power requirements for the audio stage might be around 1W at ±9V. Coupling capacitance at these levels would be very low (around 6.6pF), reducing common mode current to a very low level.

The isolation of the DC-DC converter means that there is no direct electrical connection between the power supply and the audio stage, which eliminates the effects of leakage capacitance. Additionally, the use of a low-capacitance DC-DC converter reduces the amount of high-frequency noise that can be coupled into the audio signal, further improving the quality of the audio.

This approach can be particularly effective in high-end audio systems, where even small amounts of noise or distortion can be noticeable. By using a separate, isolated DC-DC converter with low coupling capacitance, designers can help to ensure that the audio signal is as clean and accurate as possible.

DC-DC Converters from CUI

While the original intended application for CUI’s VQA Series of DC-DC converters is to power IGBT gate drivers, some models have specifications that are suitable for audio applications. When powering IGBT gate drivers, low capacitance is needed to give immunity to the high dV/dt levels in high-side drives, a characteristic that benefits audio as well.

Figure 3: CUI VQA Series DC-DC Converter

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Many of CUI’s smaller isolated DC-DC converters can also be used for powering audio applications, with coupling capacitance significantly lower than that of a typical AC-DC power supply.

Figure 4: PDP1-M Series DC-DC Converter

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For more information, check out our DC-DC Converters eBook.

Other Ways to Reduce Noise

Of course, there are so many different causes for noise, eliminating it can be a frustrating experience. These are some steps that can help to achieve the cleanest audio quality:

Use shielded or balanced audio cables: Shielded cables are designed to reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI) from nearby electrical devices, while balanced cables help to reduce noise by canceling out common mode noise. Using high-quality, shielded, or balanced cables can be an effective way to reduce noise.
Implement proper grounding techniques: Proper grounding of audio equipment is essential to reducing common mode noise. Make sure that all audio equipment is properly grounded, and avoid creating ground loops, which can occur when there are multiple ground connections, creating a potential difference between them that can cause unwanted noise.
Use isolation transformers: Isolation transformers can help to eliminate common mode noise by breaking the ground loop between devices. This can be particularly useful in situations where ground loops are a persistent problem.
Add EMI filtering components: Adding EMI filtering components, such as ferrite chokes or EMI filters, can help to reduce electromagnetic interference that can cause common mode noise.
Check for faulty components: In some cases, common mode noise is caused by a faulty component or circuit in the audio system. Checking for and replacing any faulty components can help to eliminate the noise.

Summing Up: A Solution for Noise in Audio Applications

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Noise can be a significant issue in audio applications, with common mode noise caused by leakage capacitance in a switched-mode power supply (SMPS) being a particularly problematic source. This type of noise can be generated by rapid voltage changes at switching nodes, which can pump current through stray capacitances into the local input and/or output ground or power return, resulting in noise and distortion in the audio signal. One potential solution is the use of a separate, isolated DC-DC converter with low coupling capacitance to power the sensitive analog audio stage, which can help to eliminate the effects of leakage capacitance and reduce the amount of noise and distortion in the audio signal. Several of the small DC-DC converters in the CUI portfolio fit these requirements and could be effective solutions to noise problems in audio circuits.

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Tags: bel, dc/dc, audio, smps, cui, emi, tech spotlight, grounding, dc-dc converter, noise, leakage, isolated, filter, stray capacitance, common mode

How to Design Efficient Power for Portable Devices

dychen — Mon, 27 Nov 2023 16:46:24 GMT

Current Revision posted to Documents by dychen on 11/27/2023 4:46:24 PM

Among the many challenges of designing accurate, high-performance, essential analog circuits is designing their power supplies to provide efficient low-power to precision signal-chain amplifiers, sensors, data converters, and more. In this spotlight article, we discuss not only the attributes of efficient power supplies, but also the types, design considerations, and some examples of how efficient power extends battery life for IoT and other portable applications.

The Importance of Efficient Power and Battery Life

For any portable design, battery life is important. To extend battery life, designers specify components such as low-power microcontrollers, sensors, radios, and efficient power supplies. The power supply provides energy to drive all of the device's functional blocks. Power supplies typically consist of regulators, such as switching regulators that boost or buck the voltage, or low-dropout (LDO) linear regulators. Some also have power management ICs and perhaps even a battery charger.

While active current consumption is an important factor in extending battery life, standby current of the power supply is also important as the device spends more time at sleep and hibernation to save energy. Moreover, the power supply’s quiescent current is often the biggest contributor to a system’s standby power consumption, so utilizing efficient power ICs with very low quiescent is a key strategy in extending battery life. Ultimately, extending battery life requires minimizing power dissipation. The higher the efficiency, the less power is wasted. Linear regulators provide significant advantages over switching regulators in simplicity, cost, and output noise, but not efficiency. Efficient power supplies utilizing switching regulators are good for portable designs because capacitors and inductors are used to store energy and convert the voltage.

Revisiting Linear and Switching Regulators

In this section, we’ll do a brief refresher on two of the most common power-supply ICs: linear regulators and switching regulators.

Linear Regulators

A linear regulator simply inserts an electronically variable resistor (in the form of a transistor) in series with the input DC to drop the voltage to the desired value of output voltage. If the input or load current changes, the resistance is varied by a feedback loop to keep the output voltage constant. A linear regulator can’t step up the voltage, but it can step down and regulate the voltage supplied to it with a minimal number of external components. Because these devices contain no switching elements, they generate little noise. The big disadvantage of linear regulators is power loss. When power is low, this effect is not necessarily an issue. However, let’s say you have a 5V load at 10A from a DC source of 10V. In this scenario, the power loss through the resistor is 50W, with a conversion efficiency of only 50%.

Figure 1: Linear Regulator

A linear regulator is usually, although not always, less efficient than a switching regulator. Low dropout linear regulators (LDOs) operate where the voltage of the source powering the linear regulator is near the regulator's output voltage, so efficiency in this situation is high, In that case, an LDO might be a better choice than a switching regulator because the LDO has less noise. But in general, a high-efficiency regulator provides a distinct advantage in portable designs, as less power is wasted, resulting in longer battery life.

Switching Regulators

Switching regulators are so named because they switch a power transistor, which, when used in conjunction with an inductor, efficiently converts one voltage to another. When these power transistors switch, they do so very quickly, as fast transitions improve the regulator's efficiency. To understand why, first consider the power transistor's power dissipation when it is not transitioning. When the transistor is off, voltage appears across it, but no current flows through it. So, no power is lost. When the transistor is on, a small voltage appears across it while appreciable current may flow through it. Thus, typically, a small amount of power is lost. When the power transistor transitions from an OFF state to an ON state, or vice versa, voltage appears across the transistor while current flows through it. Therefore, appreciable power can be lost. Speeding up the switching process reduces these transition losses.To minimize the power loss associated with the rectifier diode in a switching power supply, a synchronous configuration can be used. In a synchronous configuration, the rectifier diode is replaced with a MOSFET switch. This approach increases the efficiency of the switching converters even further.

Figure 2: Switching Regulators: (a) Step Down, (b) Step-Up, and (c) Inverting

Switching regulators are popular because they possess excellent efficiency when subjected to different combinations of input voltage and load current. The levels can be as high as 96% for both step-up and step-down switchers, although a step-down is typically more efficient, and up to 90% for an inverter. Also, if you need to step up, step down, or invert a voltage, switching regulators are the only devices capable of these operations for load currents above approximately 125mA.

	Linear	Switching
Function	Only steps down; input voltage must be greater than output voltage	Steps up, steps down, or inverts
Efficiency	Low to medium, but actual battery life depends on load current and battery voltage over time; high if VIN - VOUT difference is small	High, except at very low load currents (uA), where switch-mode quiescent current (IQ) is usually higher
Waste Heat	High, if average load and/or input/output voltage difference is high	Low, as components usually run cool for power levels below 10W
Complexity	Low, which usually requires only the regulator and low-value bypass capacitors	Medium to high, which usually requires an inductor, diode and filter capacitors in addition to the IC; for high power levels, external FETs are needed
Size	Small to medium in portable designs, but may be larger if heat-sinking is needed	Larger than linear at low power, but smaller at power levels for which linear requires a heat-sink
Ripple/Noise	Low; no ripple; low noise; and better noise rejection	Medium to high, due to ripple at switching rate
Total Cost	Low	Medium to High, largely due to external components

Table 1: Linear vs. Switching Regulators

Portable Devices and Applications

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The following examples show how efficient power ICs are employed in battery-powered analog applications:

High Efficiency Buck-Boost Converter for Battery-Powered IoT Applications

The growing lithium-ion battery market is largely driven by an increasing inclination towards smart electronic devices with expanding functionalities. Primary cell batteries based on Lithium Thionyl Chloride (Li-SOCl2) chemistry or dual-cell Alkaline (AA or AAA) with operations as low as 1.8V is also gaining popularity in portable devices. No matter what type of battery is employed, these devices will discharge through a wide range of voltages while sustaining a power rail between 2.8V to 3.8V, specifically for powering MCU, Wi-Fi, BLE and GPS features.

The traditional buck or bypass boost plus low dropout (LDO) topologies are not ideal solutions for these smart devices because they are not the most efficient at extending battery life. This A better solution is a buck-boost convert such as the MAX77827 that can maximize battery life and address the power requirements of many internet of things (IoT) applications.

The MAX77827 has a quiescent current of 6µA and a peak efficiency of 96%, allowing it to support low-power requirements because, regardless of the battery voltage variations, it can automatically transition between buck and boost modes to provide a consistent output power supply. The IC buck-boost regulator utilizes a four-switch H-bridge configuration to realize buck and boost operating modes. This topology maintains output voltage regulation when the input voltage is greater than, equal to, or less than the output voltage. The buck-boost is ideal in one-cell Li-ion battery powered applications and two-cell Alkaline battery powered applications, providing 2.3V to 5.3V of output voltage range. High-switching frequency and a unique control algorithm allow for a very small small solution size, low output noise, and a very high efficiency across a wide input voltage and output current range.

Figure 3: MAX77827: Low-quiescent-current, buck-boost converter with a peak efficiency of 96%

Synchronous Boost Converter for a Wearable Heart Monitoring Patch

Internet of Things solutions often require small devices operating autonomously for long periods of time while consuming little power. A good example of this type of IoT device would be a wearable heart monitoring patch. Such a device, powered by a 100mAh alkaline button cell and consuming 100µA in operation, can last 3 weeks. In shutdown mode, the device may need to last up to 3 years, which requires a leakage current of 4µA or less. A typical voltage regulator, with a leakage current of 0.2µA and a total quiescent current of 10µA will subtract 1.8 months from the device’s shelf life and two days of operation. To extend the battery life for this situation, a designer should consider the MAX17225 nanoPower synchronous boost converter. Here's why.

The MAX17225 has a 400mV to 5.5V input range, 1A peak inductor current limit, 95% Peak Efficiency, 300nA Quiescent Supply Current, and an output voltage that is selectable using a single standard 1% resistor. It has a True Shutdown™ mode that yields leakage currents in the nanoampere range, making this a truly nanoPower device. The True Shutdown feature disconnects the output from the input with no forward or reverse current, resulting in very low leakage current. The MAX17225 also features low RDSON, on-board powertrain MOSFET transistors, to yield excellent efficiency even when operating at frequencies high enough to warrant a small overall PCB size. The MAX17225, ultra-low quiescent current, high-efficiency synchronous buck converter significantly increases the shelf and operation life of IoT devices.

Figure 4: MAX17225: Typical Operating Circuit

Storage Capacitor Bank Backup-Regulator for Mission-Critical Applications

Mission-critical conditions require regulated power even with the main power source is deenergized. Thus, high-performance regulators charge a backup power source, such as a super-capacitor or capacitor bank, in just seconds to deliver continuous power to critical system components when the main power source is turned off. This solution is personified by Maxim’s Continua™ family of backup power regulators. Let's look at how they work, examiningg the MAX38888.

The MAX38888 is a storage capacitor or capacitor bank backup regulator designed to efficiently transfer power between a storage element and a system supply rail in reversible buck and boost operations using the same inductor. When the main supply is present and above the minimum system supply voltage, the regulator operates in buck mode and charges the storage element at up to 500mA peak inductor current. Once the storage element is charged, the circuit draws only 2.5μA of current while it maintains the super capacitor or other storage element in its ready state. When the main supply is removed, the regulator operates in boost mode and prevents the system from dropping below the minimum operating voltage, discharging the storage element at up to 2.5A peak inductor current. The MAX38888 is externally programmable for minimum and maximum voltage of the storage element, such as super capacitor, minimum system voltage, and maximum charge and discharge currents. The internal DC/DC converter requires only a 1μH inductor.

The MAX38888 reversible buck/boost regulator delivers has a 95 percent peak efficiency. Operating over 2.5 to 5V input in buck mode, the MAX38888 charges an energy storage device at up to 500mA peak inductor current. On supply failure, MAX38888 operates in a boost mode, providing 2.5 to 5V output at up to 2.5A peak inductor current from an energy storage device, discharging all the way to 0.8V. In portable electronics where the main power source is a battery, the MAX38888 doubles battery life by lowering quiescent current up to 15 times lower than competitive solutions during idle mode.

Figure 5: MAX38888: Typical Operating Circuit

Design Considerations

Higher performance and extended battery life pose a growing challenge for the designers of portable devices. However, the introduction of power supplies with different architectures and better performance are lessening this challenge. In this section, we will discuss the benefits and tradeoffs of different combinations of power architectures for efficient power solutions.

Low-Dropout (LDO) Linear Regulators: The LDO's lowest cost, lowest noise, and lowest quiescent current make it a solid choice for many applications. Its external components are minimal: usually a bypass capacitor or two. The newest LDOs offer dramatically improved performance. Efficiency, though poor when VIN is much larger than VOUT, becomes very high when VIN approaches VOUT. In that case, the LDO benefits are very good.

DC-DC Converters: Available in buck, boost, buck/boost, and inverting topologies, DC-DC converters offer high efficiency, high output current, and medium-low quiescent current. On the other hand, they produce output ripple and switching noise. They also are more expensive, due to a more complicated control scheme and the need for an external inductor. But, better control schemes have added valuable features such as soft-start capability, current limiting, and selectable PWM or PFM operation.

DC-DC Buck Converter: In nearly all applications for which VIN is greater than VOUT, the DC-DC buck converter is more efficient than an LDO. This is especially true when VIN is much greater than VOUT (e.g., converting the output of a single Li-ion cell to 1.8V). The DC-DC buck converter exhibits some output ripple and switching noise, but these are not as severe as in other DC-DC topologies. One notable advance in control schemes is the implementation of duty cycles up to 100%, enabling the circuit to achieve low-dropout performance.

DC-DC Buck Converter with LDO: Combining the DC-DC buck converter with an LDO is useful in applications for which high efficiency and low noise are important. This arrangement, however, applies only when VIN is substantially larger than VOUT. If the minimum VIN approaches VOUT, the LDO alone should provide similar efficiency and lower dropout, usually resulting in the same or better battery life for much lower cost.

DC-DC Boost Converter: The most important feature of a DC-DC boost converter is that an LDO cannot step up the voltage (boost). On the other hand, boost converters have notoriously high output ripple and switching noise. They also require better control schemes to eliminate oscillation in the output and to reduce efficiency loss due to parasitic resistance in the MOSFET switch and external components.

DC-DC Boost Converter plus LDO: Combining a DC-DC boost converter with an LDO has two advantages: It implements a low-noise boost function (at a slight penalty in efficiency versus the noisy booster without an LDO), and it performs the buck/boost function with surprisingly high efficiency. A typical buck/boost application converts the output of one Li-ion cell to 3.3V. Efficiency is very high, because the battery spends most of its life near 3.6V, allowing the booster to idle and providing the LDO with a near-ideal input voltage. This system also delivers higher efficiency with smaller external components than the traditional single-ended primary-inductor converter (SEPIC).

Examples of Efficient Power ICs

Low-Dropout Linear Regulator (LDO)	Step-Down/Step-Up (Buck-Boost) Regulators	Step-Up (Boost) Switching Regulator	Reversible Buck/Boost Regulator (Supercap Backup Regulator)	Step-Down (Buck) Switching Regulator
MAX38902EEVKIT# For More InformationFor More Information	MAX77827EVKIT# For More InformationFor More Information	MAX17225 For More InformationFor More Information	MAX38888EVKIT# For More InformationFor More Information	MAX38640EVKIT#WLP For More InformationFor More Information

Low-Dropout Linear Regulator (LDO)

Step-Down/Step-Up (Buck-Boost) Regulators

Step-Up (Boost) Switching Regulator

Reversible Buck/Boost Regulator

(Supercap Backup Regulator)

Step-Down (Buck) Switching Regulator

MAX38902EEVKIT#

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MAX77827EVKIT#

For More InformationFor More Information

MAX17225

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MAX38888EVKIT#

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MAX38640EVKIT#WLP

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Glossary

Analog - A system in which an electrical value (usually voltage or current, but sometimes frequency, phase, etc.) represents something in the physical world. The electrical signal can then be processed, transmitted, amplified, and finally, transformed back into a physical quality.
Boost Converter - A power supply that steps an input voltage up (boosts it) to a higher, regulated voltage.
Charge Pump - A power supply which uses capacitors to store and transfer energy to the output, often stepping the voltage up or down. Charge is transferred from one capacitor to another under control of regulator and switching circuitry.
Current-Sense Amplifier - An amplifier that measures current by measuring the voltage drop across a resistor placed in the current path. The current sense amp outputs either a voltage or a current that is proportional to the current through the measured path.
Data Converter - A/D or D/A converter: An electronic circuit that converts analog signals to digital, or vice-versa. An analog signal is a continuously varying voltage or current. Its digital counterpart is a stream of digital numbers, each representing the amplitude of the analog signal at a moment in time.
D/A Converter - Digital-to-analog converter (DAC): A data converter, or DAC, that receives digital data (a stream of numbers) and outputs a voltage or current proportional to the value of the digital data.
DC-DC - Any of the family of switch-mode voltage regulators, these devices use an inductor to store and transfer energy to the output in discrete packets, resulting in highly efficient power conversion.
ESD - Electrostatic Discharge: Release of stored static electricity. Most commonly: The potentially damaging discharge of many thousands of volts that occurs when an electronic device is touched by a charged body.

Hot-Swap - A power supply line controller which allows circuit boards or other devices to be removed and replaced while the system remains powered up. Hotswap devices typically protect against overvoltage, undervoltage, and inrush current that can cause faults, errors, and hardware damage.
Idle Mode™ - A method for improving the efficiency of switching regulators by skipping pulses when the circuit is lightly loaded. This variation in PWM (pulse-width modulation) combines the efficiency at low loads afforded by PFM (Pulse-Frequency Modulation) with PWM's efficiency and low-noise characteristics at higher loads. At light loads the circuit skips pulses as necessary (acting like a PFM circuit). At higher loads it acts like PWM. The net result is the maximum efficiency over the widest possible load range.
Inrush Current - A momentary input current surge, measured during the initial turn-on of the power supply. This current reduces to a lower steady-state current once the input capacitors charge. Hotswap controllers or other forms of protection are often used to limit inrush current, because uncontrolled inrush can damage components, lower the available supply voltage to other circuits, and cause system errors.
Inverting Switching Regulator - A switch-mode voltage regulator in which output voltage is negative with respect to its input voltage.
LDO - Low Drop Out: A linear voltage regulator that will operate even when the input voltage barely exceeds the desired output voltage.
Line Regulation - The ability of a power-supply voltage regulator to maintain its output voltage despite variations in its input voltage.
Load Regulation - Load regulation refers to circuitry that compensates for changes in load. Most commonly: Circuits that keep voltage constant as load varies.
Overvoltage Protection - Overvoltage Protector (OVP) refers to a circuit that protects downstream circuitry from damage due to excessive voltage. An OVP monitors the DC voltage coming from an external power source, such as an off-line power supply or a battery, and protects the rest of the connected circuitry using one of two methods: a crowbar clamp circuit or a series-connected switch. The crowbar short-circuits or clamps the supply line to limit the voltage, possibly triggering other forms of protection such as a fuse. See Crowbar.

Point-of-Load - Point-of-load (POL) power supplies solve the challenge of high peak current demands and low noise margins, required by high-performance semiconductors such as microcontrollers or ASICs, by placing individual power supply regulators (linear or DC-DC) close to their point of use.
PFM - Pulse-Frequency Modulation: A pulse modulation technique in which the frequency is varied with the input signal amplitude. The duty cycle of the modulated signal does not change. Because it is always a square wave with changing frequency, PFM is also referred to as square-wave FM.
PWM - A method for using pulse width to encode or modulate a signal. The width of each pulse is a function of the amplitude of the signal. A technique used to modulate the power delivered to a load. In DC-DC switching regulators, the pulse width driving the main power switch (and hence, the duty cycle) is varied to maintain the desired output voltage. In DC motor-control applications, pulse width is used to vary motor speed.
Quiescent - For an electronic circuit, a quiet state in which the circuit is driving no load and its inputs are not cycling. Most commonly used for the specification "quiescent current," the current consumed by a circuit when it in a quiescent state.
Switching Regulator - A voltage regulator that uses a switching element to transform the supply into an alternating current, which is then converted to a different voltage using capacitors, inductors, and other elements, then converted back to DC. The circuit includes regulation and filtering components to insure a steady output. Advantages include the ability to generate voltages beyond the input supply range and efficiency; disadvantages include complexity.
Synchronous Rectification - In switch-mode power supplies, the "steering" diode is replaced or paralleled with a FET switch to reduce losses and thereby increase efficiency. The FET is off during the inductor charge cycle, and then turned on as the inductor discharges into the load.
Voltage Doubler - A capacitor charge pump circuit which produces an output voltage which is twice the input voltage.
Voltage Regulator - A circuit which is connected between the power source and a load, which provides a constant voltage despite variations in input voltage or output load.

Tags: buck-boost, efficient power ic, essentials of analog, Battery Powered, ldo, portable device, maxim integrated, tech spotlight, Wearable, linear regulators, switching regulator, dc-dc converter, summer of green technology

How to Design Efficient Power for Portable Devices

dychen — Mon, 27 Nov 2023 16:44:43 GMT

Revision 3 posted to Documents by dychen on 11/27/2023 4:44:43 PM

The Importance of Efficient Power and Battery Life

Revisiting Linear and Switching Regulators

In this section, we’ll do a brief refresher on two of the most common power-supply ICs: linear regulators and switching regulators.

Linear Regulators

Figure 1: Linear Regulator

Switching Regulators

Figure 2: Switching Regulators: (a) Step Down, (b) Step-Up, and (c) Inverting

	Linear	Switching
Function	Only steps down; input voltage must be greater than output voltage	Steps up, steps down, or inverts
Efficiency	Low to medium, but actual battery life depends on load current and battery voltage over time; high if VIN - VOUT difference is small	High, except at very low load currents (uA), where switch-mode quiescent current (IQ) is usually higher
Waste Heat	High, if average load and/or input/output voltage difference is high	Low, as components usually run cool for power levels below 10W
Complexity	Low, which usually requires only the regulator and low-value bypass capacitors	Medium to high, which usually requires an inductor, diode and filter capacitors in addition to the IC; for high power levels, external FETs are needed
Size	Small to medium in portable designs, but may be larger if heat-sinking is needed	Larger than linear at low power, but smaller at power levels for which linear requires a heat-sink
Ripple/Noise	Low; no ripple; low noise; and better noise rejection	Medium to high, due to ripple at switching rate
Total Cost	Low	Medium to High, largely due to external components

Table 1: Linear vs. Switching Regulators

Portable Devices and Applications

in partnership with

The following examples show how efficient power ICs are employed in battery-powered analog applications:

High Efficiency Buck-Boost Converter for Battery-Powered IoT Applications

Figure 3: MAX77827: Low-quiescent-current, buck-boost converter with a peak efficiency of 96%

Synchronous Boost Converter for a Wearable Heart Monitoring Patch

Figure 4: MAX17225: Typical Operating Circuit

Storage Capacitor Bank Backup-Regulator for Mission-Critical Applications

Figure 5: MAX38888: Typical Operating Circuit

Design Considerations

Examples of Efficient Power ICs

Low-Dropout Linear Regulator (LDO)	Step-Down/Step-Up (Buck-Boost) Regulators	Step-Up (Boost) Switching Regulator	Reversible Buck/Boost Regulator (Supercap Backup Regulator)	Step-Down (Buck) Switching Regulator
MAX38902EEVKIT# For More InformationFor More Information	MAX77827EVKIT# For More InformationFor More Information	MAX17225 For More InformationFor More Information	MAX38888EVKIT# For More InformationFor More Information	MAX38640EVKIT#WLP For More InformationFor More Information

Low-Dropout Linear Regulator (LDO)

Step-Down/Step-Up (Buck-Boost) Regulators

Step-Up (Boost) Switching Regulator

Reversible Buck/Boost Regulator

(Supercap Backup Regulator)

Step-Down (Buck) Switching Regulator

MAX38902EEVKIT#

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MAX77827EVKIT#

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MAX17225

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MAX38888EVKIT#

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MAX38640EVKIT#WLP

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Glossary

Analog - A system in which an electrical value (usually voltage or current, but sometimes frequency, phase, etc.) represents something in the physical world. The electrical signal can then be processed, transmitted, amplified, and finally, transformed back into a physical quality.
Boost Converter - A power supply that steps an input voltage up (boosts it) to a higher, regulated voltage.
Charge Pump - A power supply which uses capacitors to store and transfer energy to the output, often stepping the voltage up or down. Charge is transferred from one capacitor to another under control of regulator and switching circuitry.
Current-Sense Amplifier - An amplifier that measures current by measuring the voltage drop across a resistor placed in the current path. The current sense amp outputs either a voltage or a current that is proportional to the current through the measured path.
Data Converter - A/D or D/A converter: An electronic circuit that converts analog signals to digital, or vice-versa. An analog signal is a continuously varying voltage or current. Its digital counterpart is a stream of digital numbers, each representing the amplitude of the analog signal at a moment in time.
D/A Converter - Digital-to-analog converter (DAC): A data converter, or DAC, that receives digital data (a stream of numbers) and outputs a voltage or current proportional to the value of the digital data.
DC-DC - Any of the family of switch-mode voltage regulators, these devices use an inductor to store and transfer energy to the output in discrete packets, resulting in highly efficient power conversion.
ESD - Electrostatic Discharge: Release of stored static electricity. Most commonly: The potentially damaging discharge of many thousands of volts that occurs when an electronic device is touched by a charged body.

Hot-Swap - A power supply line controller which allows circuit boards or other devices to be removed and replaced while the system remains powered up. Hotswap devices typically protect against overvoltage, undervoltage, and inrush current that can cause faults, errors, and hardware damage.
Idle Mode™ - A method for improving the efficiency of switching regulators by skipping pulses when the circuit is lightly loaded. This variation in PWM (pulse-width modulation) combines the efficiency at low loads afforded by PFM (Pulse-Frequency Modulation) with PWM's efficiency and low-noise characteristics at higher loads. At light loads the circuit skips pulses as necessary (acting like a PFM circuit). At higher loads it acts like PWM. The net result is the maximum efficiency over the widest possible load range.
Inrush Current - A momentary input current surge, measured during the initial turn-on of the power supply. This current reduces to a lower steady-state current once the input capacitors charge. Hotswap controllers or other forms of protection are often used to limit inrush current, because uncontrolled inrush can damage components, lower the available supply voltage to other circuits, and cause system errors.
Inverting Switching Regulator - A switch-mode voltage regulator in which output voltage is negative with respect to its input voltage.
LDO - Low Drop Out: A linear voltage regulator that will operate even when the input voltage barely exceeds the desired output voltage.
Line Regulation - The ability of a power-supply voltage regulator to maintain its output voltage despite variations in its input voltage.
Load Regulation - Load regulation refers to circuitry that compensates for changes in load. Most commonly: Circuits that keep voltage constant as load varies.
Overvoltage Protection - Overvoltage Protector (OVP) refers to a circuit that protects downstream circuitry from damage due to excessive voltage. An OVP monitors the DC voltage coming from an external power source, such as an off-line power supply or a battery, and protects the rest of the connected circuitry using one of two methods: a crowbar clamp circuit or a series-connected switch. The crowbar short-circuits or clamps the supply line to limit the voltage, possibly triggering other forms of protection such as a fuse. See Crowbar.

Point-of-Load - Point-of-load (POL) power supplies solve the challenge of high peak current demands and low noise margins, required by high-performance semiconductors such as microcontrollers or ASICs, by placing individual power supply regulators (linear or DC-DC) close to their point of use.
PFM - Pulse-Frequency Modulation: A pulse modulation technique in which the frequency is varied with the input signal amplitude. The duty cycle of the modulated signal does not change. Because it is always a square wave with changing frequency, PFM is also referred to as square-wave FM.
PWM - A method for using pulse width to encode or modulate a signal. The width of each pulse is a function of the amplitude of the signal. A technique used to modulate the power delivered to a load. In DC-DC switching regulators, the pulse width driving the main power switch (and hence, the duty cycle) is varied to maintain the desired output voltage. In DC motor-control applications, pulse width is used to vary motor speed.
Quiescent - For an electronic circuit, a quiet state in which the circuit is driving no load and its inputs are not cycling. Most commonly used for the specification "quiescent current," the current consumed by a circuit when it in a quiescent state.
Switching Regulator - A voltage regulator that uses a switching element to transform the supply into an alternating current, which is then converted to a different voltage using capacitors, inductors, and other elements, then converted back to DC. The circuit includes regulation and filtering components to insure a steady output. Advantages include the ability to generate voltages beyond the input supply range and efficiency; disadvantages include complexity.
Synchronous Rectification - In switch-mode power supplies, the "steering" diode is replaced or paralleled with a FET switch to reduce losses and thereby increase efficiency. The FET is off during the inductor charge cycle, and then turned on as the inductor discharges into the load.
Voltage Doubler - A capacitor charge pump circuit which produces an output voltage which is twice the input voltage.
Voltage Regulator - A circuit which is connected between the power source and a load, which provides a constant voltage despite variations in input voltage or output load.

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