The simple markings on photo does not have the Anode and Cathode marked.
Please reload the page as I have updated the last image.
Is it a lab power supply?
This topology looks like the typical voltage reference + opamp setup. The core of a lot of supplies.
Also: the electrolytes seem to be Philips. They should be toast by now, as you realized.
Seems to be 2 components missing from beginning, but there was sound anyway
have you removed this one?
These two were missing from the start, my first thought that it might be the same as the other one you marked, but the other one in middle i do not know.